Peace Studies and Early Buddhism: Concepts and Connections

 

Chapter 1

Peace Studies and Early Buddhism: Concepts and Connections

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1.1 Purpose of this Chapter

This chapter builds the basic ideas for this research. The thesis studies Buddha’s sacred relics from a peace studies perspective. To do that, we first need to understand what “peace” means in peace studies, and how early Buddhist texts speak about peace, safety, and harmony.

In this chapter I will:

1. Explain some simple ideas from peace studies.

2. Show how early Buddhist teachings talk about inner and outer peace.

3. Connect these ideas with the Buddha’s concern for the welfare and security of beings.

4. Show that Buddhist discipline (Vinaya) and practice are designed not only for personal liberation, but also for social harmony and protection of the community.

This conceptual base will later support the discussion on the custodians of Buddha’s sacred relics, and how relics can be part of Buddhist faith, cultural heritage, and social harmony.

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1.2 Basic Concepts in Peace Studies

Peace studies is a modern field that looks at the causes of conflict and ways to build peace at different levels: within the person, between people, in communities, and between nations. In a simple way, peace studies often makes a distinction between:

• Negative peace – the absence of direct violence, such as war or physical harm.

• Positive peace – the presence of justice, cooperation, trust and social structures that support well-being.

Peace studies is also interested in:

• Inner peace – the calm mind and emotional balance of a person.

• Structural peace – fair systems, laws and institutions that reduce suffering and conflict.

When we read early Buddhist texts with these ideas in mind, we can see that they speak about peace on all these levels, even if they use different words. Concepts like khema (security/safety), santa (peaceful), and the “welfare and happiness of many beings” show a clear concern for both inner and outer peace.

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1.3 Early Buddhist Understanding of Peace

In early Buddhism, peace is not only the absence of war. It is closely linked with the end of suffering (dukkha) and the removal of its causes. The Buddha describes suffering and its origin in the teaching of the Four Noble Truths:

1. There is suffering (stress, dissatisfaction).

2. Suffering has causes (craving and ignorance).

3. Suffering can end (cessation).

4. There is a path leading to that end.

In one passage, “birth, aging, death, sorrow, lamentation, pain, distress, and despair” are all included under suffering. This shows that peace in Buddhism is very deep: it is not only social peace, but freedom from the mental and existential stress that marks the whole cycle of life and death.

Later Theravāda analysis explains that unwholesome states are rooted in greed, hatred, and delusion, while wholesome states are rooted in their absence. A modern handbook based on early teachings explains that all unskillful qualities “have a share in what’s unskillful” and are rooted in ignorance, while skillful qualities have their roots in non-greed, non-hatred, and non-delusion. From a peace studies perspective, we can say that the roots of violence and conflict are mental and ethical, and the Buddhist path tries to cut these roots.

The highest peace is Nibbāna, which is described with many names such as “unformed”, “truth”, “safe”, “sorrowless”, “deathless” and “island, refuge, cave, shelter”. These epithets show that Nibbāna is seen as a secure and unshakable state, beyond danger and fear.

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1.4 The Buddha’s Thought of Security for Beings

The Itivuttaka records a short discourse where the Buddha says that two thoughts often occur to him:

1. The thought of security for beings

2. The thought of solitude

The text explains that the Buddha delights in non-ill will. Because he enjoys non-ill will, the thought comes to him:

“By this behaviour I do not oppress anyone either frail or firm.”

He also delights in solitude, and because of this he knows that what is unwholesome has been abandoned. The Buddha then tells the monks that they too should live delighting in non-ill will and solitude, so that the same thoughts arise in them.

From a peace studies perspective, this passage is very important. It shows that:

• The Buddha consciously thinks about security for beings.

• Peaceful behaviour is defined as not oppressing anyone, whether weak or strong.

• Inner peace (solitude, absence of unwholesome states) and social peace (non-oppression) are linked.

This gives a strong scriptural basis for seeing the Buddha not only as a teacher of personal liberation, but also as a thinker deeply concerned with the safety and well-being of all beings.

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1.5 Concord, Conflict, and the Welfare of Many

The early texts also show a clear concern with maintaining harmony in the community. In one passage, the Buddha lists seven methods for settling disputes in the Saṅgha:

• A face-to-face verdict

• A verdict of mindfulness

• A verdict of past insanity

• Acting according to what is admitted

• Acting according to the majority

• Further punishment where needed

• “Covering over as with grass”

These methods are to be recited together “without dispute” so that the holy life will last long and “be for the benefit and happiness of many, out of sympathy for the world, for the welfare, benefit, and happiness of devas and human beings.”

Here we can see several important peace-related ideas:

• Institutional tools for conflict resolution – formal ways to deal with disputes.

• Concern for long-term stability – so that the holy life “will endure and last a long time”.

• Universal compassion – “sympathy for the world… welfare and happiness of devas and human beings.”

Another passage shows the Buddha encouraging the monks to cultivate key qualities such as mindfulness, energy, and the factors of awakening, so that “this holy life may long endure and remain steadfast for the benefit, welfare, and happiness of the multitude, out of sympathy for the world.” Again, the emphasis is on both duration and public benefit.

From a peace studies viewpoint, we can say that the Buddha is trying to build institutional peace inside the Saṅgha. He gives procedures, virtues, and shared practices that reduce conflict and protect the community. This will later be a useful lens to analyse how the guardians of sacred relics should act to maintain harmony and trust.

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1.6 The Ten Reasons for Rules: A Vinaya View of Social Peace

The Vinaya explains that rules of training are laid down by the Tathāgata “founded on ten reasons”:

1. For the excellence of the Order

2. For the comfort of the Order

3. For the restraint of evil-minded individuals

4. For the living in comfort of well-behaved monks

5. For the control of present cankers (defilements)

6. For the combating of future cankers

7. For the benefit of non-believers

8. For the increase in the number of believers

9. For the maintenance of the True Dhamma

10. For the furthering of Discipline

The text then shows how these reasons are connected, saying that what is for the excellence of the Order is also for its comfort, for the restraint of evil-minded persons, for the well-being of good monks, and so on, up to the maintenance of the true Dhamma and the furthering of discipline.

Seen from peace studies, these ten reasons create a very clear framework:

• Internal peace – restraint of evil-minded individuals, control of cankers.

• Communal peace – comfort and excellence of the Order, living in ease for well-behaved monks.

• Public peace and trust – benefit of non-believers and increase of believers.

• Historical peace – maintenance of the true Dhamma and discipline over time.

This is very relevant to our study of relic custodians. Guardians of sacred relics can understand their role in a similar way:

• Protecting the moral image and excellence of the Buddhist community.

• Creating safe and respectful spaces for practice.

• Helping non-Buddhists and local communities to see the Dhamma as a source of benefit.

• Keeping the heritage alive and pure for the future.

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1.7 Nibbāna as the Ground of Peace

A practical handbook on dependent origination, based on classical sources, describes Nibbāna as “freedom-nature” and “peace-quality,” with terms like santa (peaceful), asoka (without sorrow), khema (safe/secure), and suddhi (purity). It also notes “protection images” such as “island (dīpa), refuge (tāṇa), cave (leṇa), shelter” that are used in the texts.

Nibbāna is not presented as a physical place, but as the cessation of craving, suffering, and their causes. The text warns against reifying “the Unconditioned” as a substance; it should be understood functionally as the end of affliction.

For peace studies, this is very important:

• Ultimate peace in Buddhism is the end of inner conflict and ignorance.

• This inner liberation supports non-violence and compassionate action in the world.

• The images of “island”, “refuge”, and “shelter” can be used to think about Buddhist sacred spaces – including relic shrines – as symbolic reminders of this ultimate safety.

When communities gather around relics, they are not only honouring the physical remains of the Buddha. They are also honouring the peace and safety that Nibbāna represents. This connection between symbol and meaning will be explored later in the thesis.

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1.8 Mental Roots of Violence and Peace

As mentioned above, the canonical analysis shows that unskillful actions arise from greed, hatred, and delusion, while skillful actions arise from non-greed, non-hatred, and non-delusion. A modern summary of these teachings explains that all unskillful qualities “side with what is unskillful” and are rooted in ignorance.

From a peace studies angle, we can see:

• Violence and conflict are related to mental states of craving, aversion, and confusion.

• Peaceful behaviour is linked to generosity, goodwill, and wisdom.

This mental framework will be useful later when we look at the behaviour of relic custodians. If the guardians act from greed (for money, power, fame), hatred (towards other groups), or delusion (misunderstanding the purpose of relics), their actions may create conflict and mistrust. If they act from non-greed, goodwill, and wisdom, their guardianship can support social harmony and inter-group respect.

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1.9 Association, Community, and Moral Character

Another Itivuttaka passage states that beings of similar character associate with each other: “Beings of low disposition associate… with beings of low disposition. Beings of good disposition associate… with beings of good disposition.” The verses warn that bad companions pull one down, like a person on a plank sinking in the ocean.

This has a clear social message:

• Communities are shaped by the moral quality of their associations.

• If custodians and faithful followers gather around relics with wrong motives, the whole environment can become corrupt.

• If they gather with pure intentions and good discipline, the place can become a centre of peace.

The text also warns against imposters in the yellow robe who behave badly and “are born in hell” because of their evil deeds. From a peace perspective, this shows how hypocrisy damages both personal future and social trust.

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1.10 Peace, Discipline, and the Image of the Saṅgha

The Vinaya gives many examples where the Buddha corrects behaviour that harms the public image of the Saṅgha. For instance, when monks join sham battles and are injured, people mock them and say that such behaviour is “not profitable” even for lay people, who go to fights only for livelihood and family. The Buddha then lays down rules to prevent this.

Similarly, rules are made so that thieves wearing symbols of crime, or those in a king’s service, should not be allowed to go forth, because such cases disturb and frighten the public.

From a peace studies view, this shows that:

• The Buddha is attentive to social perception and public safety.

• Ethical discipline is not only a private matter; it protects trust between the Saṅgha and society.

• A peaceful community must act in ways that do not cause fear, confusion, or scandal.

Later, when we look at the role of relic custodians, these examples will help us think about how their conduct affects public trust and inter-religious harmony.

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1.11 Towards a Peace Studies Framework for Relic Custodianship

From the internal sources we have seen, we can already outline a simple framework that will guide the later chapters:

1. Inner Peace and Liberation

   • Based on the Four Noble Truths and the end of craving and ignorance.

   • Highest form is Nibbāna, described as safe, peaceful, sorrowless and deathless.

2. Compassionate Concern for the Security of Beings

   • The Buddha’s thought of “security for beings” and non-oppression.

3. Institutional and Communal Peace

   • Dispute-settling methods for the Saṅgha, designed “for the benefit and happiness of many”.

   • Ten reasons for rules, balancing inner discipline and public benefit.

4. Moral Roots of Peace and Violence

   • Greed, hatred and delusion as roots of unskillful action; their absence as roots of skillful action.

5. Association and Social Character

   • The quality of companions and leaders shapes the whole community.

In the later chapters, this framework can be applied in more detail to:

• Historical and present-day practices around Buddha’s relics.

• The role and responsibilities of custodians.

• The use of relic shrines as spaces of dialogue, reconciliation, and cultural heritage protection.

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1.12 Conclusion

This chapter has shown that early Buddhist texts and later Theravāda analysis contain rich material for a peace studies perspective. The Buddha’s thought of security for beings, his concern for the welfare of many, the Vinaya’s ten reasons for rules, and the emphasis on inner transformation all point to a vision where personal liberation and social harmony support each other.

Introduction

 Introduction

Across Buddhist Asia, the bodily relics of the Buddha – enshrined in stupas, temples, and museums – continue to draw millions of devotees. These sacred remains are not only objects of veneration; they are also powerful symbols of continuity, identity, and hope. Around them, communities build rituals, festivals, educational programmes, and institutions. The people and organisations who care for these relics – monks, nuns, lay committees, heritage professionals, and state authorities – are the custodians of a tradition that is at once religious and cultural. Their decisions about how relics are preserved, displayed, and interpreted can strengthen faith, support social harmony, and protect cultural heritage. They can also, if handled unwisely, become sources of tension and conflict.

Peace studies offers a useful lens for examining these dynamics. It distinguishes between negative peace – the absence of direct violence – and positive peace, the presence of justice, cooperation, and harmonious relationships. From this perspective, religious sites and symbols are not neutral. They can either contribute to positive peace by fostering ethical conduct, mutual respect, and shared identity, or they can be used to justify exclusion, rivalry, and prejudice. In many societies, struggles over religious heritage, sacred spaces, and relics have become flashpoints for wider political and social tensions. Understanding the role of relic custodians, therefore, is not only a matter of religious history; it is a question with real implications for peace and conflict in contemporary communities.

The early Buddhist texts preserved in the Sutta and Vinaya collections repeatedly emphasise the value of concord (saṃagga) and warn against schism (saṅghabheda) in the monastic community, describing harmony in the Saṅgha as a cause of welfare and happiness for many beings. They also explain disciplinary rules as being laid down for the excellence and stability of the Order, for the restraint of the harmful, and for the protection and increase of faith. Later texts such as The Questions of King Milinda defend the building of relic shrines, arguing that they provide a foundation for the performance of meritorious actions and support the path to liberation. Modern practice-oriented manuals linked to relic institutions continue this logic, presenting relic sites as centres where study (pariyatti), practice (paṭipatti), and realisation (paṭivedha) are encouraged, and where ethical training – for example, keeping the five precepts – is explicitly connected to the protection of individuals and society.

Taken together, these sources suggest that Buddha’s relics and their custodians occupy a key intersection between Buddhist faith, cultural heritage, and social harmony. Relics anchor the memory of the Buddha in material form; they transmit narratives, values, and practices across generations; and they gather diverse groups into shared spaces of devotion. Custodians are responsible not only for the physical care of relics, but also for the moral, educational, and relational environment that grows around them. They can design programmes that promote generosity, loving-kindness, and wisdom, or practices that reinforce hierarchy, competition, and fear. They can manage relics as inclusive heritage that belongs to the wider community, or as symbols of possession that mark boundaries between “us” and “them.”

This study explores these issues by asking: How do the custodians of Buddha’s sacred relics function as agents of peace, cultural heritage protection, and social harmony? More specifically:

1. How are relics and their custodians portrayed in early Buddhist texts and later commentarial or dialogical literature?

2. In what ways are relics treated as forms of cultural heritage – preserving memory, identity, and ethical teaching – in both canonical sources and modern handbooks?

3. How can the work of relic custodians contribute to positive peace, and what risks arise when relics become entangled in conflict, schism, or moral degeneration?

The research is based entirely on internal sources: Pali canonical and Vinaya material in translation, classical post-canonical texts, and contemporary Dhamma manuals associated with relic institutions (such as a Buddha tooth relic preservation museum). By reading these materials through a peace studies lens, the project aims to show how traditional Buddhist concerns – the maintenance of the True Dhamma, the prevention of schism, the cultivation of wholesome roots, and the ethical training of lay communities – can be understood as elements of a broader vision of social harmony and cultural resilience.

The Research paper is organised as follows. The first chapter introduces basic concepts from peace studies and shows how early Buddhist texts provide their own vocabulary for peace, concord, and security for beings. The second chapter examines how the canonical and classical texts present Buddha’s relics and the practice of relic veneration. The third chapter turns to the role of custodians, drawing on Vinaya regulations and modern institutional examples to understand custodianship as a form of guardianship of the sāsana and of heritage. The fourth chapter analyses relics as cultural heritage, looking at how they preserve memory, ritual, and teaching for faith communities. The fifth chapter explores the ethical and social dimensions of relic-centred practice, linking precepts, wholesome mental roots, and community behaviour to positive peace. The sixth chapter considers the risks: how conflicts over relics, moral confusion, and schismatic tendencies can undermine peace and harmony, and what responsibilities custodians have as peacebuilders.

By bringing together textual study, heritage concerns, and peace studies perspectives, this research seeks to highlight the constructive role that Buddhist relic custodians can play in nurturing communities that are both deeply rooted in their own faith and committed to social harmony.

Public Statement !

 Regarding the Loss of Buddha Tooth Relics and Personal Belongings

A serious incident has occurred at International Dormitory C (Inter-C), MCU, where the  Tooth Relics under my custodianship were lost, along with several personal items.
This loss happened inside Inter-C, at the university.

For many months, I requested a temperature-controlled private room with air-conditioning, refrigerator, and proper facilities and allowed to bring the Safe Box to the room and necessary for the safe preservation of the relics. These requests were repeatedly denied, leaving the relics in an unsafe high-temperature environment, which ultimately led to their vulnerability and loss.

Official police reports have been filed at Wang Noi Police Station, and the investigation is ongoing.

I respectfully share this information for transparency and for the awareness of the Buddhist community.

Ven. Sao Dhammasami
Custodian of the Buddha Tooth Relics

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Hswagata Buddha Tooth Relics Preservation Museum Mourns the Passing of Rev. Kowane Palitha Thero

 Hswagata Buddha Tooth Relics Preservation Museum Mourns the Passing of Rev. Kowane Palitha Thero

With deep soka (grief) and mindful upekkha (equanimity), the Hswagata Buddha Tooth Relics Preservation Museum announces the passing today in Sri Lanka of Rev. Kowane Palitha Thero, Patron of the Museum. We were notified of this sad news by Madam Hansamali Fernando earlier today.

Rev. Kowane Palitha Thero was a steadfast kalyana-mitta (spiritual friend) to our mission to preserve, study, and respectfully venerate the Buddha’s dhatu (relics). His guidance consistently emphasized sacca (integrity), hiri-ottappa (conscientious care), and making the Dhamma accessible to communities near and far. Four weeks ago, he kindly informed us of his intention to visit Myanmar, and we were in direct phone contact to prepare the itinerary for that visit. We had looked forward to welcoming him and benefiting from his counsel.

“Rev. Palitha Thero’s quiet strength and unwavering metta (loving-kindness) shaped our work in visible and invisible ways,” said the Museum’s Custodian. “His encouragement kept our standards high and our hearts steady. We dedicate the puñña (merit) of our work to his memory.”

In recent years, Rev. Palitha Thero supported samagga (harmonious) dialogue across monasteries and lay communities, encouraged sīla-sampadā (excellence in ethical practice) in preservation, and inspired our volunteers and researchers to pair saddha (devotion) with viriya (diligence). His passing is a profound loss to all who value the living continuity of the Buddha’s sāsana (dispensation).

At this time, funeral arrangements and observances in Sri Lanka will be announced by those responsible locally. The Museum will share verified details when available. In the meantime, we invite the faithful to transfer merit (puññānumpadāna) in his name, observe a moment of sati (mindfulness), and keep his compassionate example alive through acts of dāna (generosity), sacca-vacana (truthful speech), and dayā (compassion).

A condolence book will be opened at the Hswagata Buddha Tooth Relics Preservation Museum. Friends and well-wishers who cannot attend in person may send messages of remembrance to the email below; these will be preserved respectfully in our archival record.

Media & Condolences

The Office Of Siridantamahapalaka
The Hswagata Buddha Tooth Relics Preservation Museum
Email: siridantamahapalaka@gmail.com
Website: www.hswagata.com

3rd.Nov.2025

About the Hswagata Buddha Tooth Relics Preservation Museum

The Hswagata Buddha Tooth Relics Preservation Museum is dedicated to the ethical preservation, study, and public education surrounding the Buddha’s sacred dhātu (relics). Through careful curation, research, and community programs, the Museum seeks to connect saddhā (faithful confidence) with paññā (clear wisdom) and responsible stewardship.

May Rev. Kowane Palitha Thero’s legacy of karuṇā (compassion) and paññā (clarity) continue to guide our work. Anicca vata saṅkhārā—impermanent indeed are conditioned things (Dhp 277). May he be honored through our wholesome deeds. I may be mistaken about the exact verse numbering; please check all references.

Earthquake Preparedness Reminder

Earthquake အကြီးကြီးတစ်ခုထပ်လာဖို့ ရှိနေပါသေးတယ်

အားလုံးအလေးဂရုပြုနေထိုင်နိုင်ကြပါစေ....

Earthquake Preparedness Reminder

If shaking begins: Drop, Cover, Hold On. Stay away from windows and heavy furniture. After the shaking, go to an open area, expect aftershocks, and help others if it’s safe. Keep essentials ready: water, flashlight, first-aid, medications, and important documents.Philippines,Taiwan,Indonesia and thailand some parts be aware of dangerous rain and flooding.May everyone be free from danger and suffering.

With Metta

Sao Dhammasami @ Bhikkhu Indasoma Siridantamahapalaka

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