Chapter 2
Buddha’s Sacred Relics in the Canonical Tradition
2.1 Purpose of This Chapter
In Chapter 1, we looked at peace studies and early Buddhist ideas about peace, security, and social harmony. We saw that the Buddha is not only interested in personal liberation, but also in the welfare and happiness of many beings, and in harmony in the Saṅgha.
In this chapter, we focus on one special topic inside this larger picture: Buddha’s sacred relics. We will ask:
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How do early Buddhist texts and related classical literature describe the relics of the Buddha?
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What is the meaning and purpose of building shrines and stupas for these relics?
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How do these shrines connect to faith, merit, and the presence of the Buddha in the world?
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How do later teachers, especially those connected with a Buddha tooth relic museum, continue this tradition?
By answering these questions, we prepare the ground for later chapters, where we will talk about custodians of relics and the role they can play in cultural heritage and social harmony.
2.2 Words and Categories for Relics
In the Pāli tradition, several words are connected to what we call “relics”:
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Dhātu – literally “element”, often used for bodily relics of the Buddha and great disciples.
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Cetiya – a shrine or memorial.
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Thūpa – a stupa or mound which usually contains relics or commemorates an important place.
Later Buddhist tradition also speaks of three main types of “relics” or “memorials” of the Buddha:
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Bodily relics – physical remains such as bone, hair, or tooth.
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Relic of use – things used by the Buddha, such as his robe or begging bowl.
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Dhamma relics – the teachings, which are like a living presence of the Buddha in the world.
Our internal texts do not always list these three in one place, but we can see the same idea spread through them: the Buddha is remembered and honoured through his body, his possessions, and especially his Dhamma. Later, in the Questions of King Milinda, this idea becomes very clear.
2.3 The Division of the Relics in the Mahāparinibbāna Tradition
The Mahāparinibbāna Sutta in the Dīgha Nikāya is the main canonical source for the final days of the Buddha and the story of his relics. Our file SuttaPitaka210710.pdf contains an introduction to this sutta. The editor explains that when the Buddha passed away, there was a dispute over his remains. The city leaders agreed to divide the relics among themselves, and each group built a monument or stupa over their share.
This picture is confirmed by the introduction to The Questions of King Milinda. When the author speaks about the Greek king Menander (Milinda), he compares the division of Menander’s remains by his followers to “the division of the Buddha’s remains recorded in the Mahāparinibbāna Sutta: the city leaders agreed to divide the relics among themselves, each to erect a monument in his honour.” Here we see that:
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The dividing of relics and the building of stupas was already a famous story in the early Buddhist tradition.
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It was used as a model for later practices, even in non-Indian contexts.
This narrative shows several important things:
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The relics of the Buddha were seen as extremely precious, so different communities wanted a share.
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There was a need for fair distribution, to avoid conflict over ownership.
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The natural result of receiving relics was to build a stupa or shrine, as a place for honour and remembrance.
From a peace studies view, we can already notice a tension: on one side, relics unite people in devotion; on the other side, they can become objects of competition. How this tension is handled becomes important for social harmony. We will return to this in later chapters.
2.4 Relics in the Questions of King Milinda
The Questions of King Milinda (Milindapañhā) is a dialogue between King Milinda and the monk Nāgasena. It is not part of the four main Nikāyas, but it is an important classical text in the Theravāda tradition. It explains many Buddhist ideas through simple stories and similes.
In the introduction, the editor describes the historical king Menander and explains that his followers shared his body and built monuments, similar to the way the Buddha’s relics were divided and enshrined. This already shows that the text takes relics very seriously, and that it sees them as a natural object of honour after the death of a great person.
Later in the text, there is a key passage where King Milinda asks about the “general shop” of the Buddha. Nāgasena answers that the general shop of the Blessed One is:
“The nine-limbed Word of the Buddha, the shrines of his bodily relics and the things he used, and the jewel of the Order.”
This short sentence is very rich. It brings together three important objects of faith:
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The Word of the Buddha – the teachings in nine categories (such as suttas, verses, discourses, etc.).
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Shrines of bodily relics and used objects – stupas, reliquaries, and special items associated with the Buddha.
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The Order (Saṅgha) – the community of monks and nuns.
They are all described as one “general shop” or “great store” where people can come to “buy” what they need spiritually. Of course, they do not buy with money, but with faith, effort, and practice. In simple words, Nāgasena is saying:
“If you want to grow in the Dhamma, you go to the teachings, to the relic shrines, and to the living Saṅgha.”
This tells us several things about relics:
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They are not separate from the Dhamma and the Saṅgha; they belong together.
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They are means to enter the path, not the final goal.
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They are part of the “shop” of spiritual goods that the Buddha offers to the world.
2.5 Relic Shrines as Foundations for Merit and Liberation
In the Milinda text, there is also a well-known simile where Nāgasena explains why building a shrine for the Buddha’s relics is useful, even though the Buddha has already passed into final Nibbāna. The king asks: if the Buddha is gone, what is the point of building shrines? Is there still any benefit?
Nāgasena answers with a simile of the earth and crops (I summarise it in simple English):
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Imagine a farmer who wants to grow grain. He needs earth as a foundation. Without earth, there is nowhere for the seeds to grow.
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In the same way, the relic shrines are like the earth; they give a firm basis for good deeds, devotion, and meditation.
Thanks to relic shrines:
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People are inspired to give offerings, listen to Dhamma, and practice meditation.
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Humans and devas can gather, pay respect, and create wholesome kamma.
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These wholesome actions become conditions for progress on the path and, finally, for liberation.
In this way, Nāgasena defends relic worship against the criticism that it is useless or “only for the body”. He shows that the real function of a relic shrine is to support good mental states and wholesome actions in those who visit it.
We can put this into peace studies language:
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Relic shrines create spaces where people are encouraged to act with generosity, respect, and mindfulness.
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This reduces the influence of greed, hatred, and delusion, which are roots of conflict.
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By strengthening positive qualities, the shrines become small training grounds for peace, both inner and outer.
2.6 Relics as Memory and Living Presence
From these sources we can see that relics are not just bones or teeth. They are centres of memory and signs of presence.
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Memory of the Buddha’s life.
The Mahāparinibbāna tradition tells the story of the Buddha’s passing and the building of stupas. Every time people hear or retell this story, they remember the Buddha’s compassion, wisdom, and final instructions. A stupa or relic shrine becomes a visual story of these events. -
Sign of the Buddha’s presence.
Even though the Buddha has passed away, the relics are treated as symbols of his continuing influence. When people bow down to a stupa or tooth relic, they feel as if they are bowing to the Buddha himself. The Milinda text supports this feeling by placing relic shrines inside the “general shop” of the Buddha, together with his living Word and the Saṅgha. -
Bridge between generations.
Relics allow later generations to feel connected to the early community. A person living many centuries after the Buddha can still say: “Here is a physical trace of him. Many previous generations have also come here, bowed, and practised.” This creates a sense of continuity, which is very important for cultural heritage and community identity.
From a peace perspective, shared memory and shared symbols can unite people. When communities meet around a relic shrine and tell the same stories, they create a common narrative. This common narrative can reduce suspicion and increase trust among different groups of Buddhists.
2.7 Relic Shrines as Meeting Places of Humans and Devas
In many Pāli texts, we see that not only humans, but also devas (gods or heavenly beings) honour the Buddha and the Dhamma. The Milinda similes about relic shrines clearly mention that both devas and humans benefit from them. A relic shrine is a meeting point between:
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The human world (people who come, offer flowers, light lamps, listen to teachings).
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The divine world (devas who rejoice in the merit, or who are said to visit and protect the shrine).
Even if a modern reader does not literally believe in devas, we can still read this symbolically:
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Devas can represent subtle or refined states of mind.
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A relic shrine becomes a place where coarse states (anger, greed) are left behind, and refined states (joy, faith, calm) are encouraged.
In both cases, the message is similar:
A relic shrine is a place where the atmosphere is lifted up, where people try to behave in a noble way, and where unseen forces (whether psychological or spiritual) are aligned with goodness.
This view supports the idea of relic shrines as spaces that can support peace and harmony. If a shrine is used correctly, people will:
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Control their behaviour, speech, and clothing.
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Show respect to others.
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Avoid quarrels in that place.
This habit can then spread out from the shrine into wider social life.
2.8 Relics, Faith and Wisdom
It is possible to look at relic worship only from the outside and think: “This is just emotion. People bow to bones and expect magic.” But the internal sources show a more balanced picture.
On one side, relics are clearly linked with faith (saddhā):
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People feel devotion and tenderness when they see or imagine the Buddha’s relics.
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They want to express gratitude and honour by offering flowers, incense, and lights.
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This strong emotion can support confidence in the path.
On the other side, the texts always connect relics back to wisdom and practice:
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In the Milinda simile, the purpose of relic shrines is to give a basis for good actions that support the path to Nibbāna.
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The same text puts relic shrines next to the Word of the Buddha and the Saṅgha as different parts of one “shop”. This makes it clear that relics are not enough by themselves; they are helpful when they lead to learning, reflection, and practice.
A later practical handbook on dependent origination, written by a teacher who founded a Buddha Tooth Relics Preservation Museum, uses the same pattern. In the preface, the author tells how his life of study and meditation led him to establish the museum, and how the Dhamma of dependent origination is at the centre of his work. The relics are important, but they are always connected with:
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Teaching Abhidhamma and Pāli scriptures.
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Training people in meditation.
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Helping them understand the chain of causes that leads to suffering and its end.
In this way, the modern tooth relic museum continues the older pattern:
Relics → Faith → Study and Practice → Wisdom → Inner peace and social benefit.
When we look at relics from this angle, they are not competitors to wisdom, but doorways to it. The real danger is not relics themselves, but wrong understanding of relics. This point will be important later when we study the risks of conflict and misuse.
2.9 Relics and Cultural Heritage
So far, we have spoken in religious language: faith, merit, devas, Nibbāna, and so on. However, in modern times, relic shrines and stupas are also seen as part of cultural heritage. Our internal sources already give material for this view, even though they are older.
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Relics and social memory.
The story of the division of the relics in the Mahāparinibbāna tradition, and the later comment about Menander’s remains in the Milinda introduction, show that sharing relics and building monuments is a social process. It creates physical landmarks and shared stories. These become heritage objects – things that carry identity and memory for a group. -
Relics and community identity.
When each city or community receives a part of the relics and builds a stupa, it can say: “We also have a direct connection to the Buddha.” This is a strong basis for local pride and religious identity. At the same time, since all the relics come from the same Buddha, there is a sense of unity across different places. Many stupas, but one teacher. -
Relics and education.
The Milinda text’s idea of the “general shop” suggests that relic shrines are places where people learn the Dhamma and meet the Saṅgha. In modern times, the Buddha tooth relic museum in our internal handbook does the same through classes, meditation courses, and talks. This is a clear example of how relic institutions can act as cultural and educational centres. -
Relics and architecture / art.
While our texts do not go into detail about art history, we know that stupas and relic shrines often inspired sculpture, paintings, and special forms of architecture. Even without external sources, we can logically see that a community that builds and decorates a stupa is building a shared artistic project. This strengthens social bonds and gives a visible shape to invisible values.
For peace studies, heritage can be both a bridge and a barrier. It is a bridge when communities share, protect, and celebrate their heritage in an open and respectful way. It is a barrier when groups use heritage to exclude others or to claim superiority. Our texts show both sides: the dividing of relics can be done fairly, but it can also lead to quarrels. This will be an important theme when we talk about the role of custodians.
2.10 Summary and Link to the Next Chapter
In this chapter, we have looked at Buddha’s sacred relics mainly through the lens of canonical and classical texts, especially the Mahāparinibbāna tradition and the Questions of King Milinda, together with hints from a modern handbook connected to a tooth relic museum. We have seen that:
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Relics are divided and enshrined so that many communities can share in the Buddha’s presence.
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Relic shrines are part of the “general shop” of the Buddha, along with his teachings and the Saṅgha.
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They provide a foundation for merit, devotion, and practice that can lead to liberation.
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They function as centres of memory, symbols of presence, and meeting places for humans and devas.
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When connected with teaching and practice, relics can support wisdom and peace, not oppose them.
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They are important elements of cultural heritage, creating identity and continuity across generations.
From a peace studies angle, we can say that relics and their shrines are potential tools for positive peace. They can help shape gentle, generous, and respectful behaviour. However, because they are powerful symbols, they can also become objects of rivalry and conflict if they are not handled wisely.
