1. Historical background and archaeological discovery
In Custodians of the Buddha’s Sacred Relics, Vol. 1, Hadda Stupa No. 10 is introduced as “The Great Stupa of Architectural Brilliance” and identified with Tope Kelan, one of the most impressive Buddhist monuments at Hadda, near Jalalabad in today’s Afghanistan. Hadda itself was a major Buddhist centre, famous for its intricately carved stucco sculptures and dense concentration of stupas and monasteries.
The stupa was first explored in the 19th century by Charles Masson, who uncovered a wealth of relics and artefacts in its interior. Later, French archaeologists Gérard Fussman and Jean Carl carried out additional excavations in 1933, confirming its importance as a centre of Buddhist worship and art.
Hadda Stupa No. 10 stands out because of:
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its monumental scale,
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a highly sophisticated subterranean reliquary system, and
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the sheer richness of reliquaries, coins, stucco figures, and metalwork found within.
Even among Gandhāran monuments, Tope Kelan is described as “one of the finest examples of Gandharan artistry”.
2. Relics and symbolic material culture
The book notes that “the relics discovered at Hadda Stupa No. 10 were among the most impressive in the Gandharan region”, although Masson did not fully document them. A summary table lists key categories:
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Teeth and bones – alleged Buddha relics, but poorly recorded in official reports.
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Golden reliquaries – several decorated caskets containing relics, adorned with precious stones and intricate designs.
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Stucco figures – numerous sculptures of the Buddha, Bodhisattvas and celestial beings, forming a three-dimensional mandala of sacred presence.
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Coins and tiles – including Byzantine and Sasanian coins (Theodosius II, Marcian, Leo I) showing long-distance cultural exchange between Gandhāra and late antique Western empires.
Doctrinally, this combination means the stupa functioned as a cosmological micro-universe:
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the relics at the centre embody the Buddha’s continuing presence (buddhānussati),
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the stucco Buddhas and Bodhisattvas represent the many forms through which compassion manifests,
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the coins and foreign motifs show that the Buddha’s message circulates across empires and cultures.
For pilgrims, circumambulating Tope Kelan would thus have been walking through a material sermon on the reach of the Dhamma—from Gandhāra to Byzantium, from human world to celestial realms.
3. Architectural brilliance as Buddhist cosmology
Architecturally, Hadda Stupa No. 10 is remarkable for its unusual underground reliquary chamber:
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The chamber is connected to the main stupa by cylindrical shafts that allowed controlled access to the relics.
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The ceiling was decorated with suspended bronze plates, creating a resplendent, other-worldly atmosphere—almost like a starry sky over the relics.
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A large bronze cauldron stood inside the chamber, believed to have held offerings.
Masson’s own description (quoted in the book) says he “felt like a diver surrounded by treasure” when entering the chamber because of the overwhelming quantity of artefacts.
From a Buddhist lens, this engineering is not just technical; it expresses cosmology:
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The vertical shafts symbolise the axis between the human world and the sacred centre of the universe (like Mount Meru): practitioners move around the stupa above while the relics rest in the hidden “heart” below.
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The shining bronze ceiling and celestial stuccos evoke deva realms, suggesting that the relics radiate merit upwards through many layers of existence.
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The cauldron of offerings embodies dāna continually flowing toward the Buddha, reinforcing the doctrine that generosity is the foundation of the path.
So the “architectural brilliance” of Tope Kelan is a three-dimensional expression of Buddhist cosmology and ethics, not merely decorative skill.
4. Heritage at risk: war, looting and displacement
The book repeatedly stresses that Hadda and its stupas, including Tope Kelan, have suffered heavily from war, looting and neglect. Many sites were damaged or destroyed during conflicts in Afghanistan, and countless sculptures and relics were illegally removed and sold into private collections or foreign museums.
For Tope Kelan specifically, the text notes that:
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many relics and artefacts were lost or remain unverified;
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the stupa continues to face threats from instability, looting, and lack of resources for proper conservation;
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nonetheless, it “stands as a testament” to Gandhāran Buddhist heritage and still carries enormous cultural and spiritual significance.
In Peace Studies terms, this is a clear case of structural violence against heritage:
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physical violence from wars and explosions,
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economic violence from illicit trafficking,
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and institutional weakness (underfunded archaeology, limited security) that leaves sites vulnerable.
The loss and scattering of Tope Kelan’s relics also undercut cultural peace: a monument that once unified pilgrims is fragmented, with parts in Kabul, Paris, Tokyo, London, and private hands.
At the same time, international museums and organisations now play a role in partial protection: artefacts associated with Hadda are preserved at institutions such as Musée Guimet and the Tokyo National Museum, while UNESCO and French cultural missions promote their conservation and study. This creates a complex peace/justice tension: some objects are safer abroad, but their removal raises questions about consent, ownership, and the right of Afghan communities to their own heritage.
5. Governance and SDG 11.4: protecting Gandhāran treasures
From a governance angle, Hadda Stupa No. 10 is a textbook example of why SDG 11.4 (“strengthen efforts to protect and safeguard the world’s cultural and natural heritage”) is necessary:
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The site’s brilliance and the richness of its relics make it a global heritage asset, not just a local ruin.
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But ongoing conflict in Afghanistan means that the state’s capacity to protect Hadda is limited. Heritage custodianship thus requires international cooperation—between Afghan authorities, UNESCO, foreign museums, and research institutions.
The book’s discussion of Hadda (including the comparative table with Sakawagunti) stresses a few governance points you can highlight in your thesis:
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Need for thorough documentation. Masson’s partial records left many Tope Kelan relics “poorly documented”, making it hard to track or authenticate them later. Clear inventories and publication are crucial for future protection.
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Legal frameworks and enforcement. Without strong laws and enforcement mechanisms, stupas like Tope Kelan are easy targets for looters, especially in times of war.
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Ethical museum policies. Museums holding Hadda artefacts must navigate repatriation debates, provenance research, and collaborative projects with Afghan partners, in line with SDG 16’s focus on justice and accountable institutions.
In peace-governance framework, Tope Kelan can thus stand as a heritage-risk case: a monument whose cosmological richness shows why relic sites matter, and whose vulnerability shows what happens when institutions fail.
