The Buddha appears more as a reformer than a revolutionary
Whether the Buddha was a revolutionary or a reformer?
This question cannot be answered definitively. It needs to be analyzed section by section.
A revolutionary is someone who completely overturns an old system, old values, class positions, established power structures, and dominant religious-social systems to establish something entirely new. A reformer, on the other hand, maintains the foundations of the old system while making changes to methodologies, social relationships, and philosophical perspectives to make them more open, free, and progressive.
Using these definitions, it's difficult to categorically label the Buddha as either purely revolutionary or purely reformist. The Buddha was both a bearer of new ideas and someone who understood the value of existing traditions. He recognized both the merits of the old systems and saw what needed reform.
From a philosophical perspective, the Buddha could be considered revolutionary. However, "revolutionary" here means he provided critical analysis of all existing viewpoints rather than total rejection. During Buddha's time, there were various concepts of atta (self). There were different interpretations of what constituted the self. The self was considered permanent, stable, and the owner/controller/experiencer of the five aggregates.
The Buddha rejected all these definitions. When analyzing "everything," it can be reduced to the Five Aggregates, mind-and-matter, 12 sense bases, 18 elements, etc. In human experience, we only find these phenomena. When examining these phenomena, we find that they are all interdependent, conditioned, and constantly changing and decaying - processes that cannot be prevented. Therefore, the Buddha concluded these phenomena are "not-self" (anatta).
A revolutionary is someone who completely overturns an old system, old values, class positions, established power structures, and dominant religious-social systems to establish something entirely new. A reformer, on the other hand, maintains the foundations of the old system while making changes to methodologies, social relationships, and philosophical perspectives to make them more open, free, and progressive.
Using these definitions, it's difficult to categorically label the Buddha as either purely revolutionary or purely reformist. The Buddha was both a bearer of new ideas and someone who understood the value of existing traditions. He recognized both the merits of the old systems and saw what needed reform.
From a philosophical perspective, the Buddha could be considered revolutionary. However, "revolutionary" here means he provided critical analysis of all existing viewpoints rather than total rejection. During Buddha's time, there were various concepts of atta (self). There were different interpretations of what constituted the self. The self was considered permanent, stable, and the owner/controller/experiencer of the five aggregates.
The Buddha rejected all these definitions. When analyzing "everything," it can be reduced to the Five Aggregates, mind-and-matter, 12 sense bases, 18 elements, etc. In human experience, we only find these phenomena. When examining these phenomena, we find that they are all interdependent, conditioned, and constantly changing and decaying - processes that cannot be prevented. Therefore, the Buddha concluded these phenomena are "not-self" (anatta).
On the Buddha's rejection of extreme views and teaching of Dependent Origination:
"Dvayaṃ nissito kho ayaṃ Kaccāna loko yebhuyyena atthitañceva natthitañca... 'Sabbam atthi'ti kho Kaccāna ayam eko anto, 'Sabbaṃ natthī'ti ayaṃ dutiyo anto. Ete te Kaccāna ubho ante anupagamma majjhena Tathāgato dhammaṃ deseti." (SN 12.15 Kaccānagotta Sutta)
The Buddha wasn't interested in the question of whether self exists or not. If there were a self, its characteristics would include permanence, stability, essence, and self-sovereignty. In the aggregates, sense bases, and elements, we don't find these characteristics of self - we only find the characteristic of non-self (anatta). Therefore, the Buddha confirmed these phenomena are not-self.
"Dvayaṃ nissito kho ayaṃ Kaccāna loko yebhuyyena atthitañceva natthitañca... 'Sabbam atthi'ti kho Kaccāna ayam eko anto, 'Sabbaṃ natthī'ti ayaṃ dutiyo anto. Ete te Kaccāna ubho ante anupagamma majjhena Tathāgato dhammaṃ deseti." (SN 12.15 Kaccānagotta Sutta)
The Buddha wasn't interested in the question of whether self exists or not. If there were a self, its characteristics would include permanence, stability, essence, and self-sovereignty. In the aggregates, sense bases, and elements, we don't find these characteristics of self - we only find the characteristic of non-self (anatta). Therefore, the Buddha confirmed these phenomena are not-self.
The Hindu Upanishads speak of the existence of atta (self). The Buddha didn't directly deny or confirm its existence. Instead, he asked for evidence - "Is there anyone who has seen or known it?" In one sutta, when asked about this, he mocked those who claimed self-existence by comparing them to a line of blind men, noting that none could trace it back even seven generations.
Therefore, the existence or non-existence of self isn't a definitive matter. The Buddha often stated he preferred not to discuss or answer this question. Humans tend to imagine self exists in some form. The Buddha explained this as twenty forms of personality-belief (sakkāya-diṭṭhi). For each of the five aggregates, people hold four wrong views:
1. The aggregate belongs to self
2. The aggregate is self
3. Self exists within the aggregate
4. The aggregate exists within self
When multiplied by the five aggregates, this creates twenty forms of wrong view about self. The Buddha rejected all these as unfounded doctrines.
Therefore, the existence or non-existence of self isn't a definitive matter. The Buddha often stated he preferred not to discuss or answer this question. Humans tend to imagine self exists in some form. The Buddha explained this as twenty forms of personality-belief (sakkāya-diṭṭhi). For each of the five aggregates, people hold four wrong views:
1. The aggregate belongs to self
2. The aggregate is self
3. Self exists within the aggregate
4. The aggregate exists within self
When multiplied by the five aggregates, this creates twenty forms of wrong view about self. The Buddha rejected all these as unfounded doctrines.
On the twenty forms of personality belief (sakkāya-diṭṭhi):
"Rūpaṃ attato samanupassati, rūpavantaṃ vā attānaṃ, attani vā rūpaṃ, rūpasmiṃ vā attānaṃ..." (MN 44 Cūḷavedalla Sutta)
So when asked whether the Buddha's teaching of anatta means "there is no self" or "it is not-self," the primary meaning is "it is not-self." The aggregates, sense bases, and elements lack the characteristics of self and cannot be owned. Because they are not-self, they are impermanent, unsatisfactory, and uncontrollable. The Buddha taught that these not-self phenomena are worthy of dispassion and disgust, not attachment. This leads to the sequence: dispassion leads to non-attachment, non-attachment leads to liberation. This is the Buddha's analysis of suffering.
When portraying the Buddha as revolutionary, some present him as establishing anatta-vada (doctrine of no-self). Actually, there is no such doctrine, and the Buddha never called himself an anatta-vadin. Instead, he said he was free from all doctrinal positions. He used the terms atta/anatta as tools when needed. Anatta is simply a perception tool for meditation practice to counter self-attachment.
The Buddha's truly revolutionary view was his teaching of Dependent Origination (Paṭiccasamuppāda). This principle aligns with concepts of anatta and suññata (emptiness) and serves as a tool to clear away all doctrinal thickets. The essence of Dependent Origination is that nothing exists independently. The aggregates, sense bases, and elements arise dependent on one another - one depending on many, many depending on one, or many depending on many. Because they are impermanent and without essence, they exist through mutual dependence and interconnection.The aggregates, sense bases, elements, and truths aren't separate entities but interconnected points within a single network. Only by seeing them this way can one begin to grasp the depth of Dependent Origination.
"Rūpaṃ attato samanupassati, rūpavantaṃ vā attānaṃ, attani vā rūpaṃ, rūpasmiṃ vā attānaṃ..." (MN 44 Cūḷavedalla Sutta)
So when asked whether the Buddha's teaching of anatta means "there is no self" or "it is not-self," the primary meaning is "it is not-self." The aggregates, sense bases, and elements lack the characteristics of self and cannot be owned. Because they are not-self, they are impermanent, unsatisfactory, and uncontrollable. The Buddha taught that these not-self phenomena are worthy of dispassion and disgust, not attachment. This leads to the sequence: dispassion leads to non-attachment, non-attachment leads to liberation. This is the Buddha's analysis of suffering.
When portraying the Buddha as revolutionary, some present him as establishing anatta-vada (doctrine of no-self). Actually, there is no such doctrine, and the Buddha never called himself an anatta-vadin. Instead, he said he was free from all doctrinal positions. He used the terms atta/anatta as tools when needed. Anatta is simply a perception tool for meditation practice to counter self-attachment.
The Buddha's truly revolutionary view was his teaching of Dependent Origination (Paṭiccasamuppāda). This principle aligns with concepts of anatta and suññata (emptiness) and serves as a tool to clear away all doctrinal thickets. The essence of Dependent Origination is that nothing exists independently. The aggregates, sense bases, and elements arise dependent on one another - one depending on many, many depending on one, or many depending on many. Because they are impermanent and without essence, they exist through mutual dependence and interconnection.The aggregates, sense bases, elements, and truths aren't separate entities but interconnected points within a single network. Only by seeing them this way can one begin to grasp the depth of Dependent Origination.
This interpretation critiques all contemporary belief systems. Some claimed the world was created by a creator god. Others said it arose from the combination of primordial matter and consciousness. Some believed everything was predetermined by past causes. Others maintained that things happened randomly without specific causes. The Buddha refuted all these views through the doctrine of Dependent Origination (Paṭiccasamuppāda).
The Buddha based his analysis of suffering (dukkha) on Paṭiccasamuppāda. Suffering isn't caused by a creator, nor solely by past karma, nor does it arise without cause. He showed how craving leads to clinging, clinging leads to becoming, and becoming leads to suffering. He also explained how craving itself arises through Dependent Origination. He criticized various philosophical schools for being entangled in their views like thorny bushes because they didn't understand this principle. Some held eternalist views, some nihilistic views, some partial views, and some agnostic views - all because they didn't understand how Dependent Origination works. In this aspect, the Buddha indeed carried out a philosophical revolution.
On arūpa jhānas not being the final goal:
"Santā vā sā samāpatti, sāpi kho aniccā dukkhā vipariṇāmadhammā" (MN 106 Āneñjasappāya Sutta)
The Buddha based his analysis of suffering (dukkha) on Paṭiccasamuppāda. Suffering isn't caused by a creator, nor solely by past karma, nor does it arise without cause. He showed how craving leads to clinging, clinging leads to becoming, and becoming leads to suffering. He also explained how craving itself arises through Dependent Origination. He criticized various philosophical schools for being entangled in their views like thorny bushes because they didn't understand this principle. Some held eternalist views, some nihilistic views, some partial views, and some agnostic views - all because they didn't understand how Dependent Origination works. In this aspect, the Buddha indeed carried out a philosophical revolution.
On arūpa jhānas not being the final goal:
"Santā vā sā samāpatti, sāpi kho aniccā dukkhā vipariṇāmadhammā" (MN 106 Āneñjasappāya Sutta)
However, regarding spiritual practice, the Buddha was more of a reformer than a revolutionary. He was a samana (ascetic) who followed the samana tradition. His disciples sometimes called him Mahāsamana (the Great Ascetic). The samana tradition existed long before the Buddha, since ancient times. Samanas opposed Vedic traditions, renounced household life, and sought truth in solitude outside society. The Khaggavisāṇa Sutta in the Suttanipāta describes ancient samanas as Paccekabuddhas (Silent Buddhas), depicting them as solitary seekers of liberation like rhinoceros horns. Contemporary movements like Jainism founded by Mahavira and the Ājīvaka sect established by Makkhali Gosāla were also part of the samana tradition. The Buddha himself adopted the samana lifestyle when he was still a Bodhisatta (Buddha-to-be).
Although the Buddha-to-be followed the samana path, his first two teachers - Āḷāra and Uddaka - were actually Brahmin sages, not samanas. They taught the samatha-yānika path, focusing on arūpa jhānas (formless meditative absorptions) that progressively refined consciousness by removing mental characteristics until only pure awareness remained. These were methods from Sāṅkhya-yoga philosophy. The Buddha mastered these practices completely.
These meditation techniques genuinely provided peace and could establish the mind in the highest states of concentration. However, the Buddha realized these were not true liberation from suffering but only temporary cessations. His discovery was that even in the highest states of concentration, the mind still clung to the identity of "one who experiences jhānic bliss." He understood that as long as this identification remained, there was no escape from suffering. As long as there remained a duality between the experiencer and the experienced, true liberation (vimutti) was not achieved. So despite mastering these yogic practices, he abandoned them.
These meditation techniques genuinely provided peace and could establish the mind in the highest states of concentration. However, the Buddha realized these were not true liberation from suffering but only temporary cessations. His discovery was that even in the highest states of concentration, the mind still clung to the identity of "one who experiences jhānic bliss." He understood that as long as this identification remained, there was no escape from suffering. As long as there remained a duality between the experiencer and the experienced, true liberation (vimutti) was not achieved. So despite mastering these yogic practices, he abandoned them.
On the characteristic of non-self:
"Sabbe dhammā anattā'ti, yadā paññāya passati;
Atha nibbindati dukkhe, esa maggo visuddhiyā." (Dhp 279)
Today, there's a misconception that these arūpa jhāna practices are forms of self-torture (attakilamatha). Actually, arūpa jhānas are sukha-paṭipadā (pleasant path) practices, involving peaceful dwelling in meditative bliss, not self-mortification. They are neither the true path to liberation nor self-torture - they're simply extraordinary states of mind. The danger with arūpa jhānas is that they so closely resemble liberation that they can be mistaken for the final goal.
In many suttas, the Buddha described arūpa jhānas as stages of mental development while also teaching about their impermanence, unsatisfactoriness, uncontrollability, and non-self nature, showing they are not true liberation. In the Pārāyana Vagga, sixteen brahmin youths who were disciples of Bāvarī were practitioners of arūpa jhānas. The Buddha taught them how to use these states as a foundation for liberation, showing that while arūpa jhānas themselves aren't vipassanā, they can become objects of insight meditation. We also find examples of arahant monks during the Buddha's time occasionally entering arūpa jhānas for purification, indicating that Buddhism neither rejected nor opposed these practices as self-mortification. While not considering them the path itself, the Pārāyana Vagga shows there are doors to liberation even from arūpa states. From this perspective, the Buddha appears more as a reformer than a revolutionary.
The life of Ven. Sivali Thero and his relics
The life of Ven. Sivali Thero, as derived from Pali sources and traditional accounts, provides a mix of canonical references and later hagiographical narratives. Below is a comprehensive exploration of his life from birth to death, based primarily on verifiable Pali sources, supplemented by traditional accounts where relevant, with a cautious approach to distinguishing between canonical and later embellishments.
Ven. Sīvali Thera is a notable figure in early Buddhist literature, primarily recognized in the Pali Canon as the foremost recipient of offerings (lābhīnaṃ aggo). However, many details about his life come from later commentaries and traditional accounts, which should be distinguished from the earliest canonical sources. Below is a breakdown of his life based on verifiable Pali sources and later traditions, with appropriate distinctions.
The story of Sivali is particularly interesting because of his past karma. Before his birth, he remained in his mother's womb for seven years, seven months, and seven days due to past karmic actions. This difficult pregnancy was the result of a past life where he had once blocked the supply of food to a city during a siege.
However, through his strong determination and his mother's virtuous actions, he was eventually born and later became a monk under the Buddha. After attaining Arahantship, he became known for his extraordinary merit in always receiving abundant offerings wherever he went.
There's a famous story where he accompanied Ven. Sariputta with 500 monks through a desert. Despite the harsh conditions, they never lacked requisites due to Sivali's presence and merit.
Today, many Buddhist practitioners, especially in Theravada countries, pay respects to Ven. Sivali when embarking on journeys or starting new ventures, believing his blessings will help ensure abundance and success.
Canonical Reference in Pali Sources
The most authoritative reference to Ven. Sivali Thero is found in the Anguttara Nikaya (AN 1.14), specifically in the Etadagga Vagga (AN 1.188-267), where the Buddha declares Sivali as the foremost among monks who receive offerings (lābhīnaṃ agghaṃ). This designation highlights his extraordinary ability to attract alms and provisions, a trait that made him a symbol of abundance and good fortune in Buddhist traditions.
No other direct biographical details about Sivali’s life, such as his birth, ordination, or death, are explicitly detailed in the Pali Canon (the Tipitaka). Most of the additional information comes from later commentarial texts (e.g., the Dhammapada Atthakatha, Apadana, and Theragatha Atthakatha) and traditional narratives, which are not considered historically definitive but are significant in Theravada Buddhist culture. These sources must be approached critically, as they often blend historical elements with legendary or didactic embellishments.
Life of Ven. Sivali Thero
Past Life Karma
According to the Apadana (a text within the Khuddaka Nikaya) and commentarial traditions, Sivali’s remarkable ability to receive offerings is attributed to meritorious actions in past lives. One prominent story describes him as a king in a previous life who, during a siege of a city, caused significant hardship by cutting off its food supply for seven years, seven months, and seven days. This act of deprivation, though not malicious in intent, resulted in suffering for the city’s inhabitants.
As a karmic consequence, Sivali experienced an unusually prolonged gestation and birth process in his final life. However, the same story credits his subsequent generosity—offering food and resources to the city after the siege—as the cause of his ability to attract abundant offerings as a monk. This narrative, while vivid, is not found in the core Pali Canon and reflects the didactic style of the Apadana, which emphasizes karmic causality.
Birth
The traditional accounts, particularly from the Dhammapada Atthakatha and other commentarial sources, provide details about Sivali’s birth:
- Mother: Sivali’s mother was Suppavāsā, identified as the daughter of the King of Koliya, a prominent clan in the Buddha’s time. The Koliyas were neighbors of the Sakyas, the Buddha’s clan, and were based in the region of modern-day northern India/Nepal.
- Prolonged Gestation: According to tradition, Suppavāsā carried Sivali for an extraordinary period of seven years, seven months, and seven days. This prolonged pregnancy is often interpreted as a karmic result of the past-life siege mentioned above.
- During the difficult labor, the Buddha spoke these words to Suppavāsā- "May Suppavāsā, daughter of the Koliyan, be well and happy and give birth to a healthy son."
The birth was extremely painful, leading Suppavāsā to send gifts to the Buddha and request his blessings.
The Buddha declared:
"Sukhaṃ supanti sīvalī, sukhaṃ sīvali paccayo"
("Sīvali sleeps in comfort, and his supporters live in comfort.")
(Ud 2.8, DhA 1.15)After this, she gave birth easily.
- Labor and Mindfulness: During labor, which reportedly lasted seven days, Suppavāsā endured immense pain. She is said to have maintained mindfulness by reflecting on the virtues of the Buddha, Dhamma, and Sangha, which helped her endure the ordeal. This detail underscores her spiritual strength and serves as a moral example in traditional narratives.
- Miraculous Events: Some accounts, such as those in the Apadana, suggest that upon Sivali’s birth, abundant offerings of food and provisions miraculously appeared for his family and community, foreshadowing his later designation as the foremost recipient of offerings.
These details, while widely circulated in Theravada traditions, are not corroborated in the Pali Canon’s suttas and should be treated as hagiographical. The emphasis on the number “seven” (seven years, months, days) is a common motif in Buddhist storytelling, symbolizing completeness or intensity rather than literal historical fact.
Ordination & Enlightenment (Canonical & Commentarial Accounts)
Ordained under Ven. Sāriputta:
The Apadāna (ThagA 1.120) states that Sīvali became a monk under Ven. Sāriputta.
Attained Arahantship on Ordination Day: Some commentaries (e.g., DhA 1.15) claim he reached enlightenment immediately, but this is not in the early suttas.
Foremost in Receiving Offerings:
The Anguttara Nikāya (AN 1.14) lists him as:
"Etadaggaṃ bhikkhave mama sāvakānaṃ bhikkhūnaṃ lābhīnaṃ yadidaṃ Sīvalī."
("Foremost among my monk disciples who receive offerings is Sīvali.")This is the only direct canonical reference to his status.
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Teacher: Ordained by Ven. Sāriputta, the Buddha’s chief disciple.
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According to tradition, Sīvalī attained arahantship on the very day of his ordination.
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He was admitted into the bhikkhu sangha as a novice and full monk with ease.
Role as a Monk
Sivali’s designation as the foremost recipient of offerings (AN 1.14) suggests he was highly revered by lay supporters, likely due to his virtuous conduct and the karmic merit accumulated from past lives. Traditional stories describe him as a monk whose presence ensured the Sangha received ample provisions, even in times of scarcity. For example:
- In the Dhammapada Atthakatha, there are anecdotes of Sivali’s presence leading to abundant alms during alms rounds or journeys, such as when the Buddha and his monks were traveling through difficult terrain.
- One story recounts how merchants traveling with Sivali’s monastic group found their provisions miraculously sustained, attributing this to Sivali’s merit.
These stories, while not verifiable in the canonical suttas, reinforce Sivali’s reputation as a symbol of abundance and prosperity in Theravada Buddhism.
Association with Offerings and Fortune
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Ven. Sīvalī was never short of requisites, no matter where he went.
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The Buddha himself insisted on taking Sīvalī along on long journeys due to his “magnetic” fortune in receiving offerings.
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Monks and laypeople were always eager to provide food and shelter to him.
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His extraordinary merit is the reason he is invoked as a symbol of prosperity, safe travel, and abundance.
Final Days and Passing Away
There is no detailed canonical account of Ven. Sīvalī’s final days or death. However:
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Tradition holds that he lived a long life as an arahant, continuing to be an example of good kamma and spiritual attainment.
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He is said to have passed away peacefully, with his legacy preserved through stories and popular veneration.
🕯️ Devotional Reflection on the Sacred Relic of Venerable Sīvalī Thera 🕯️
“The Ever-Blessed Receiver of Offerings”
This sacred relic is the bodily remainder (sarīrika dhātu) of Venerable Sīvalī Thera, one of the most highly venerated disciples of the Buddha. The Blessed One, in the Aṅguttara Nikāya (AN 1.14), declared:
"Among my disciples who are recipients of offerings, Sīvalī is supreme (lābhīnaṃ aggo).”
🌸 A Symbol of Boundless Merit
The shape of this relic—clustered, lotus-like, and naturally formed—mirrors the abundance of merit Ven. Sīvalī accumulated through countless lifetimes. It is said that in a past life, he once besieged a city, causing suffering; and in atonement, he offered great acts of generosity in subsequent lives. His final life as Sīvalī was marked by miraculous birth and immediate spiritual awakening.
🌼 A Living Embodiment of Blessings
Ordained by Ven. Sāriputta, Ven. Sīvalī attained Arahantship on the very day of his ordination, a rare and profound achievement. Wherever he went, offerings flowed to him effortlessly—not due to worldly fortune, but because of the unshakable power of pure kamma and noble aspiration.
🪔 Devotees believe that venerating his relic:
Opens the heart to generosity (dāna)
Invites abundance—both material and spiritual
Protects journeys and brings success to righteous undertakings
Reminds us that past actions, purified through right effort, lead to the path of awakening
🌺 May those who behold and revere this relic cultivate:
Gratitude for the Sangha
Faith in the Triple Gem
Diligence on the Noble Eightfold Path
(Lābhīnaṃ Aggo – Foremost Receiver of Offerings)
📿 Relic Description:
This is a revered bodily relic (sarīrika dhātu) of Ven. Sīvalī Thera, the distinguished disciple of the Buddha, declared by the Blessed One in the Aṅguttara Nikāya (AN 1.14) as the foremost among those who receive offerings.
The relic is multi-lobed and globular, resembling a cluster of lotus seeds—a traditional symbol of abundance, merit, and purity.
⚖️ Weight: 7.0 grams
📏 Size: Approx. 1.5–2 cm diameter
🎨 Color: Light ochre-brown with a distinct white speck on its surface
🔍 Texture: Naturally calcified, matte, and unpolished
Description of the Relic
- Shape and Appearance: The relic is roughly spherical but irregular, with a bumpy, textured surface composed of numerous small nodules or protrusions. It resembles a miniature cauliflower or a tightly clustered bunch of tiny beads, giving it an organic, uneven structure. The relic appears to be about the size of a large grape or small marble, consistent with the size observed in your previous images.
- Color and Texture: The relic is a light brownish-tan color, similar to the previous images. The texture is grainy and porous, with a rough, natural surface that indicates it is a solid, compacted object. The bumpy, cauliflower-like structure is prominent, with small, rounded protrusions creating an uneven appearance. This aligns with descriptions of Buddhist sarira (relics) as stone-like or crystalline remnants found after cremation.
🕯️ Symbolic Meaning:
The clustered form signifies the fruition of countless good deeds (puñña) and the inexhaustible flow of offerings that Ven. Sīvalī received due to his vast store of merit. The white mark is revered by some as a symbol of purity or awakening.
🙏 Traditional Account:
Born miraculously to Lady Suppavāsā after a 7-year pregnancy
Ordained under Ven. Sāriputta
Attained Arahantship on the day of ordination
Continues to be honored across Buddhist lands as a bringer of fortune, abundance, and blessings
Remark!
The Pali Canon and early commentarial texts, such as the Anguttara Nikaya (AN 1.14), do not provide specific descriptions of Sivali’s relics, and modern claims about their existence often stem from devotional traditions rather than historical records. The relic’s appearance is consistent with general Buddhist relic characteristics, but its attribution to Sivali would require further historical or archaeological verification, which is beyond the scope of this analysis.
Historical and Textual Considerations
To approach Sivali’s life with historical rigor:
- Primary Source: The only definitive canonical reference is AN 1.14, which establishes Sivali as the foremost monk in receiving offerings. This suggests he was a historical figure in the early Sangha, recognized for his ability to attract alms, likely due to his virtuous conduct and widespread respect.
- Commentarial Accounts: Details about his past life, birth, and ordination come from later texts like the Apadana, Dhammapada Atthakatha, and Theragatha Atthakatha, composed centuries after the Buddha’s time. These texts blend historical memory with legendary elements to inspire devotion and illustrate karmic principles.
- Cultural Significance: Sivali’s veneration as a symbol of abundance persists in Theravada countries (e.g., Sri Lanka, Thailand, Myanmar), where he is often depicted in iconography or invoked in chants for prosperity. This reflects the influence of commentarial narratives rather than canonical evidence.
Verification Challenges
- Lack of Canonical Detail: Beyond AN 1.14, the Pali Canon provides no biographical details about Sivali’s life, making it difficult to verify traditional accounts.
- Symbolic Elements: The recurring motif of “seven years, seven months, seven days” in his gestation and past-life siege suggests symbolic storytelling rather than historical fact, as this number is a common literary device in ancient texts.
- Archaeological Evidence: No inscriptions or archaeological records specifically attest to Sivali’s life, unlike some other figures like Sariputta or Ananda, who are mentioned in early Buddhist sites.
May all who pay homage to this relic accumulate merit, receive blessings, and walk the Noble Path with mindfulness and faith.
Sādhu! Sādhu! Sādhu!
Sādhu! Sādhu! Sādhu!
Sao Dhammasmi
Research Scholor
🕊️ Sacred Relic of Ven. Sīvalī Thera
(Lābhīnaṃ Aggo – Foremost Receiver of Offerings)
📿 Relic Description:
This is a revered bodily relic (sarīrika dhātu) of Ven. Sīvalī Thera, the distinguished disciple of the Buddha, declared by the Blessed One in the Aṅguttara Nikāya (AN 1.14) as the foremost among those who receive offerings.
The relic is multi-lobed and globular, resembling a cluster of lotus seeds—a traditional symbol of abundance, merit, and purity.
⚖️ Weight: 7.0 grams
📏 Size: Approx. 1.5–2 cm diameter
🎨 Color: Light ochre-brown with a distinct white speck on its surface
🔍 Texture: Naturally calcified, matte, and unpolished
Description of the Relic
- Shape and Appearance: The relic is roughly spherical but irregular, with a bumpy, textured surface composed of numerous small nodules or protrusions. It resembles a miniature cauliflower or a tightly clustered bunch of tiny beads, giving it an organic, uneven structure. The relic appears to be about the size of a large grape or small marble, consistent with the size observed in your previous images.
- Color and Texture: The relic is a light brownish-tan color, similar to the previous images. The texture is grainy and porous, with a rough, natural surface that indicates it is a solid, compacted object. The bumpy, cauliflower-like structure is prominent, with small, rounded protrusions creating an uneven appearance. This aligns with descriptions of Buddhist sarira (relics) as stone-like or crystalline remnants found after cremation.
🕯️ Symbolic Meaning:
The clustered form signifies the fruition of countless good deeds (puñña) and the inexhaustible flow of offerings that Ven. Sīvalī received due to his vast store of merit. The white mark is revered by some as a symbol of purity or awakening.
🙏 Traditional Account:
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Born miraculously to Lady Suppavāsā after a 7-year pregnancy
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Ordained under Ven. Sāriputta
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Attained Arahantship on the day of ordination
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Continues to be honored across Buddhist lands as a bringer of fortune, abundance, and blessings
Remark!
The Pali Canon and early commentarial texts, such as the Anguttara Nikaya (AN 1.14), do not provide specific descriptions of Sivali’s relics, and modern claims about their existence often stem from devotional traditions rather than historical records. The relic’s appearance is consistent with general Buddhist relic characteristics, but its attribution to Sivali would require further historical or archaeological verification, which is beyond the scope of this analysis.
May all who pay homage to this relic accumulate merit, receive blessings, and walk the Noble Path with mindfulness and faith.
Sādhu! Sādhu! Sādhu!
🕯️ Devotional Reflection on the Sacred Relic of Venerable Sīvalī Thera 🕯️
“The Ever-Blessed Receiver of Offerings”
This sacred relic is the bodily remainder (sarīrika dhātu) of Venerable Sīvalī Thera, one of the most highly venerated disciples of the Buddha. The Blessed One, in the Aṅguttara Nikāya (AN 1.14), declared:
"Among my disciples who are recipients of offerings, Sīvalī is supreme (lābhīnaṃ aggo).”
🌸 A Symbol of Boundless Merit
The shape of this relic—clustered, lotus-like, and naturally formed—mirrors the abundance of merit Ven. Sīvalī accumulated through countless lifetimes. It is said that in a past life, he once besieged a city, causing suffering; and in atonement, he offered great acts of generosity in subsequent lives. His final life as Sīvalī was marked by miraculous birth and immediate spiritual awakening.
🌼 A Living Embodiment of Blessings
Ordained by Ven. Sāriputta, Ven. Sīvalī attained Arahantship on the very day of his ordination, a rare and profound achievement. Wherever he went, offerings flowed to him effortlessly—not due to worldly fortune, but because of the unshakable power of pure kamma and noble aspiration.
🪔 Devotees believe that venerating his relic:
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Opens the heart to generosity (dāna)
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Invites abundance—both material and spiritual
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Protects journeys and brings success to righteous undertakings
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Reminds us that past actions, purified through right effort, lead to the path of awakening
🌺 May those who behold and revere this relic cultivate:
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Gratitude for the Sangha
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Faith in the Triple Gem
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Diligence on the Noble Eightfold Path
Sādhu! Sādhu! Sādhu!
May the blessings of Ven. Sīvalī Thera flow into your life and guide you to peace, merit, and liberation.
PRESS RELEASE
Scientific Testing of Sacred Buddhist Relic Materials
In the course of a multi-year research journey , I have been entrusted with revered materials by monks (bhikkhus) and devoted followers from diverse regions. Based on their accounts, and through my own meditative reflection and field-based study, it has become increasingly clear that these sacred materials merit thorough and detailed scientific investigation. These sacred objects, believed to be associated with the Buddhist philosophy, carry profound spiritual and historical significance. Their custodians offered them for safekeeping and careful study out of deep faith and commitment to the Dhamma.
Initially, efforts were made to explore scientific methods, including DNA analysis and AMS (Accelerator Mass Spectrometry) dating and radiocarbon dating , as tools to help preserve and understand these materials. However, after careful reflection and consultation with respected monastic elders and scholars, concerns were raised about the appropriateness of applying empirical analysis to objects that are traditionally considered cetiya — sacred relics meant to inspire faith (saddhā) and reverence, not investigation.
In light of these considerations, and guided by the spirit of the Kālāma Sutta, Mahāmangala Sutta, and Vinaya Piṭaka, this project has been respectfully redirected toward a Dhamma-centered path rooted in ethical integrity (sīla), humility (nivāta), and reverence (gārava).I have formally submitted six DNA samples to four renowned scientific institutions across the globe and respectfully request their kind support and academic partnership in bringing this project to completion. It is my sincere aspiration that the findings from this study will contribute meaningfully to the field of Buddhist studies and provide new insights for scholars, archaeologists, and practitioners alike.
This renewed direction affirms that relics are not simply historical curiosities, but vital links to the living tradition of the Buddha’s path — objects that inspire devotion, humility, and mindfulness. It is my sincere aspiration that this work will serve the wider Buddhist community, foster deeper understanding, and support the continuity of sacred traditions with integrity and care.
Enclosed with this statement are the relevant facts and initial findings that have shaped both my understanding and perception throughout this research journey. I remain committed to transparency, scholarly integrity, and the collaborative spirit of global inquiry.
I express heartfelt gratitude to the monastic teachers and Dhamma friends whose wise counsel helped shape this shift in focus. May this initiative honor the letter and spirit of the Buddha’s teachings and benefit all beings.
With deepest respect and in service to the pursuit of truth,
Sao Dhammasami
Research Scholar, Buddhist Studies
The Author of Custodians of the Buddha’s Sacred Relics Vol.1: ✨ Discover the Legacy of Sacred Treasures ✨ (English Edition)
🔬 What is AMS dating?
AMS dating is a form of radiocarbon dating (¹⁴C dating), but it's far more precise and requires much smaller samples than traditional methods.AMS dating stands for Accelerator Mass Spectrometry dating — a highly sensitive method used for determining the age of ancient organic materials.
🧪 How it works:
- Carbon-14 (¹⁴C) is a radioactive isotope found in all living organisms.
- When an organism dies, it stops absorbing carbon, and the ¹⁴C in its body begins to decay.
- AMS directly counts the number of ¹⁴C atoms (instead of measuring their decay indirectly like older methods).
- From the ratio of ¹⁴C to stable carbon (¹²C or ¹³C), scientists calculate how long it's been since the organism died — usually up to 50,000 years ago.
✅ Why it's useful:
- Requires only a few milligrams of material (good for precious or rare samples like relic wrappings, bone fragments, charcoal).
- Can date bones, wood, cloth, ashes, and other organic materials.
- Ideal for archaeological and religious relic research where non-destructive or minimal sampling is crucial.
🔬 What is DNA Testing?
DNA (Deoxyribonucleic Acid) is the genetic code found in all living beings.
DNA testing allows researchers to:
- Identify if relics are human or animal
- Determine age, sex, or lineage of remains
- Compare ancient samples with known populations
✅ Can help verify authenticity
🚫 Must be approached with ethical care and religious respect
🧪 What is Carbon-14 (¹⁴C) Dating?
Carbon-14 Dating is a method that calculates the age of once-living material by measuring the remaining radioactive carbon isotope (¹⁴C).
- All living things absorb ¹⁴C during life
- After death, ¹⁴C begins to decay
- Measuring the decay tells us how long ago the object lived
🔍 Useful for dating ancient biological materials
⏳ Supports historical timelines of sacred objects
🙏 With Reverence for the Sacred
When applied to Buddhist relics (dhātu), these methods must follow:
- Vinaya ethics and traditional rituals
- Sangha consultation and permissions
- A spirit of faith (saddhā) and mindfulness (sati)
"Let science support, not disturb, the sacred. May truth, tradition, and respect walk together."
The Buddha's Relics: A Journey Through Time (From parinibbāna ( final passing away) to 2025)
The distribution of the Buddha’s relics after his parinibbāna (final passingaway) is a significant event in Buddhist history, documented in the Mahāparinibbāna Sutta (DN 16) and other Pali sources. The relics (sarīrika-dhātu) became objects of veneration, enshrined in stūpas (monuments)by his devoted followers, including kings, wealthy patrons, and deities.
1. The Buddha attained parinibbāna in Kusinārā (modern Kushinagar, India)during the full moon of Vesakha (Pali, equivalent to April-May).
After his passing, his body was honored for seven days before being cremated (Mahāparinibbāna Sutta, DN 16.6.15).
The Mallas of Kusinārā, the ruling clan of the region, initially kept the relics and guarded them with honor.
1. A dispute arose among various kingdoms and clans over the possession of the Buddha’s relics. The Mahāparinibbāna Sutta (DN 16.6.23-24) records that a Brahmin named Dona intervened, proposing a fair division to prevent conflict:
"Let us all unite in harmony and peace; Let us divide the relics into eight portions, So that far and wide stūpas may rise, And many may gain faith in the Seeing One." (DN 16.6.23)
The relics were divided among eight claimants:
King Ajātasattu of Magadha
The Licchavis of Vesālī
The Sakyas of Kapilavatthu
The Bulis of Allakappa
The Koliyas of Rāmagāma
A Brahmin of Veṭhadīpa
The Mallas of Pāvā
The Mallas of Kusinārā
Additionally: Dona the Brahmin received the urn used in the distribution.The Moriyas of Pipphalivana arrived late but were given the embers and ashes.
3. Main Devotees of the Buddha
The Buddha had many devoted followers, including kings, wealthy merchants, and deities. Some of the most prominent were:the main categories of the Buddha's prominent devotees:
1. Human Kings (Rājāno):
King Bimbisāra of Magadha (first royal patron)
King Pasenadi of Kosala
King Ajātasattu (after his conversion)
King Udena of Kosambi
King Pukkusāti of Gandhāra
1. Wealthy Supporters (Mahāseṭṭhī):
Anāthapiṇḍika (Sudatta) - foremost lay supporter who purchased Jetavana
Visākhā - foremost female lay supporter, built Pubbārāma
Jīvaka Komārabhacca - royal physician
Meṇḍaka - wealthy merchant of Bhaddiya
Ghosita - established Ghositārāma in Kosambi
1. According to AN 8.69 (Paṭhamaparisāsutta), many devas and brahmas were dedicated followers:
Devas:
Sakka (king of devas)
Cattāro Mahārājāno (Four Great Kings)
Tāvatiṃsa realm Devas
Māra (after his conversion)
Brahmas:
Brahma Sahampati (requested Buddha to teach)
Brahma Sanankumāra
Brahma Baka
The Pali texts, particularly in the Sagāthāvagga of Saṃyutta Nikāya (SN),contain numerous accounts of devas and brahmas visiting the Buddha forteachings.The devotion of these various supporters helped establish and spread the Buddha's teachings. The kings provided protection and infrastructure, wealthy supporters established monasteries and provided material support, while celestial beings often validated the Buddha's teachings through their presence and devotion.
4. The Enshrinement of Relics
Each of the eight claimants built a stūpa (reliquary monument) in their respective territories. Later, Emperor Ashoka (3rd century BCE) is said to have redistributed the relics further, building 84,000 stūpas (Mahāvaṃsa, Ch. V).
5. King Ajātasattu's role in the relic collection, primarily based on the Mahāparinibbāna Sutta (DN 16) and later chronicles:
According to DN 16, when King Ajātasattu heard of the Buddha's parinibbāna, he sent messengers to claim his share of the relics. Initially, there was potential conflict as eight parties claimed rights to the relics:
"When they heard that the Lord had died at Kusinārā, the King Ajātasattu Vedehiputta of Magadha sent a messenger saying: 'The Lord was a Khattiya and so am I. I am worthy to receive a share of the Lord's relics.'" (DN 16.6.22)
Key Actions by Ajātasattu:
1. Initial Collection:
Received one-eighth share of the relics through Dona's intervention
Built a stūpa (Sanskrit: Stūpa) in Rajagaha to enshrine his portion
1. Construction Project: According to the Aśokāvadāna and other later texts,
Ajātasattu:
Constructed a significant stūpa (Sanskrit: stūpa)Created elaborate arrangements for protecting the relics.Established regular offerings and ceremonies.However, it's essential to note that while Ajātasattu played a significant role,the gathering of all relics in one location is more commonly associated with Emperor Asoka's later activities, who allegedly collected relics from various stūpas and redistributed them into 84,000 stūpas.
6. Post-Cremation and Relic Enshrinement (Stūpa Tradition)
Relics were enshrined in cetiya (stūpas) and became pilgrimage centers.
Construction of Stūpas:
Early relic stūpas were erected in the eight cities that received relics.Over time, the relics were subdivided and re-enshrined in hundreds of locations, especially by King Asoka, who built 84,000 stūpas (as per commentaries and chronicles like the Mahāvaṃsa).
7.🕯️ Why Did King Asoka Collect and Redistribute the Relics?
King Asoka's motivation and actions regarding the Buddha's relics based on traditional accounts and historical records:
Primary Motivations:
1. Religious Vision: According to the Aśokāvadāna, Asoka had a vision to:
Make the Buddha's teachings accessible throughout his empire.Create places of worship in regions where Buddhism hadn't reached.Fulfill a prophecy that spoke of a righteous king who would distribute the relics
1. Political and Spiritual Strategy:
Unify his vast empire through shared religious monuments, such as stūpas(stūpa) and cetiya (cetiya)
Make the Dhamma (Dharma) accessible to all people. Create merit (puñña) through this massive religious undertaking
The Process (based on traditional accounts):
1. Collection Phase:
Opened 7 of the 8 original stūpas (except Ramagama stūpa, protected by nāgas)Gathered relics from various locations.Protected original relic portions in their initial locations.
1. Distribution Phase:
Divided relics into 84,000 portions.Built 84,000 stūpas (Sanskrit: stūpa) across his empire.Established dharma-cetiya (Sanskrit: dharmacakra) centers around these stūpasFrom the Aśokāvadāna: "Asoka opened the seven stūpas, leaving only Ramagama untouched, and distributed the relics into 84,000 stūpas, which he built throughout Jambudvipa (Indian subcontinent)."It is important to note that the number 84,000 is often symbolically used in Buddhist texts to represent completeness or totality. While this figure may be symbolic, archaeological evidence confirms Asoka’s construction of numerous stūpas and pillars throughout his empire.
Modern Archaeological Evidence:
Remains of Asokan stūpas have been found across South Asia.Asoka's pillars and edicts mention his dedication to spreading the Dhamma.Some relic caskets from this period have been discovered
8 . Emperor Ashoka and the Rediscovery of the Relics
A. Ashoka’s Conversion to Buddhism
Initially a ruthless conqueror, Ashoka underwent a profound transformation after the bloody Kalinga War (c. 260 BCE).He embraced Buddhism under the guidance of the monk Nigrodha (MahāvaṃsaV) and became a Dhammarāja(Righteous King). Ashoka sought to spread the Buddha’s teachings (Dhamma) across his empire and beyond.
B. Ashoka’s Rediscovery and Redistribution of Relics
According to the Pali chronicles (Mahāvaṃsa, Dīpavaṃsa) and Buddhist Sanskrit texts (Aśokāvadāna):
1. Opening the Original Stūpas
Ashoka collected the relics from the eight original stūpas (built after the Buddha’s cremation).He broke open seven of them (except Rāmagāma, which was protected by Nāgas) and gathered the relics
2. Construction of 84,000 Stūpas
Aśoka enshrined the relics in 84,000 new stūpas across his empire (Mahāvaṃsa V.20).This act was meant to spread the Buddha’s blessings and unify his vast kingdom under Dhamma.
3. The Role of the Monk Moggaliputta Tissa
The elder Moggaliputta Tissa (Aśoka’s spiritual advisor) helped purify the Sangha and organize the Third Buddhist Council (c. 250 BCE).Aśoka sent Buddhist missions (including his son Mahinda and daughter Saṅghamittā) to Sri Lanka, Kashmir, and Southeast Asia, carrying relics and teachings.
C. Aśoka’s Inscriptions Confirm His Devotion
The Pillar Edicts and Rock Edicts of Aśoka mention his reverence for the Buddha’s relics.
For example:
"King Devānampriya Priyadarśi (Aśoka) honors all sects, but he honors the Sangha most of all." (Major Rock Edict XII)
According to the Mahāvaṃsa (Chapter 31):
“He opened the seven relic-chambers and took the relics. He distributed them and had 84,000 stūpas (thūpas) built over them throughout the world.”
✧ Purpose: To propagate the Dhamma throughout his vast empire.
To inspire devotion among his subjects and establish visible symbols of the Buddha’s presence.
To fulfill a religious act of great merit (mahāpuñña).
🪷 Special Case: The Undivided Relics of Rāmagāma. Source: Mahāparinibbāna Sutta (DN16). One of the eight original relic portions was entrusted to the Koliyas of Rāmagāma. Although these relics were never enshrined in a stūpa at that time,they were kept secure in a golden urn and protected by nāgas (mythical serpent beings) in the river.
✧ Prophecy in the Sutta: “These relics will later be taken and enshrined in a great stūpa by a king who is a righteous ruler of the earth.” (Dīgha Nikāya 16, Mahāparinibbāna Sutta)This prophecy was understood to refer to King Asoka, who fulfilled it by retrieving the Rāmagāma relics and enshrining them in the Great stūpa(Mahāthūpa) at Sāñchī or elsewhere.
🏯 Summary of the 8 Relic Owners Post-Parinibbāna Shareholder Location Fate of Relics
1. Ajātasattu Rājagaha Enshrined in a stūpa
2. Licchavis Vesāli Enshrined in a stūpa
3. Sakyas (Sakyas) Kapilavatthu (Kapilavastu) Enshrined in a stūpa
4. Koliyas (Koliyans) Rāmagāma (Rāmagrāma) Kept intact, guarded by nāgas (nāgas)
5. Mallas (Mallas) Kusinārā (Kushinagara) Enshrined
6. Mallas (Mallas) Pāvā (Pava) Enshrined
7. Bulis (Buli) Allakappa Enshrined
8. Moriyas (Moryas) Pipphalivana (Pipphalivana) Enshrined Urn Dona Brāhmaṇa(Brahmin) Built a stūpa for the urn Ashes Moriyas (Moryas) Built a stūpa
9. King Kaniṣka (Kushan Empire) and the Second Rediscovery
King Kaniṣka, ruler of the Kushan Empire in the 2nd century CE, is historically known for his significant contributions to Buddhism, including collecting and redistributing the relics of the Buddha. While not mentioned in the early Pāli Canon, later Buddhist texts—especially from the Sanskrit and Chinese traditions—give detailed accounts of his role in relic redistribution.
🏛️ Who Was King Kaniṣka?
Reigned c. 127–150 CE (dates debated)
Ruled the Kushan Empire, which covered parts of modern-day India, Pakistan, Afghanistan, and Central Asia.A great patron of Mahayana Buddhism, but also supported Theravāda and other schools.Known for organizing the Fourth Buddhist Council in Kashmir (according to Sarvāstivādin tradition).
🕯️ Why Did Kaniṣka Collect and Redistribute the Relics?
✦ 1. Devotional Motivation
Inspired by King Asoka, Kaniṣka sought to amplify the presence of Buddhism by constructing new stūpas (Sanskrit: stūpa) and relocating relics into them.Aimed to earn puñña (merit) and strengthen Buddhist faith among his subjects.
✦ 2. Imperial Unification through Religion
Used Buddhism as a unifying ideology across his diverse empire.Redistributing relics into newly built stūpas in distant parts of the empire helped spread Buddhism and solidify his religious-political authority.
🏺 How Did He Do It?
Source: Avadānaśataka (Sanskrit text), Chinese texts like the Fayuan Zhulin and Xuanzang’s travelogues.
✦ According to the Legends:
1. Kaniṣka ordered the opening of the original stūpas (stūpa) built by Asoka torecover the relics. Kaniṣka ordered the opening of the original stūpas (stūpa) built by Asoka.His engineers and monks carefully unearthed the relics of the Buddha.
2. Miraculous Events:
In some stories, celestial beings protested or protected the relics.Kaniṣka is said to have been guided by devas (deva) or arhats (arhat) in respectfully relocating them.
3. Enshrining in the Kaniṣka Stūpa:
The Kaniṣka Mahāstūpa at Peshawar (ancient Purushapura) became the central repository for many relics.Described in Chinese pilgrim Xuanzang’s 7th-century account as “towering several hundred feet high”. Archaeological finds in Peshawar include the famous Kaniṣka Casket, which once held Buddha relics.
🧭 The Kaniṣka Relic Movement
ContributionExplanationPreservationEnsured survival and veneration of relics through renewed enshrinement.RelocationBrought relics from Indian heartlands to Gandhāra and Central Asia, expanding the Buddhist world.Monument BuildingHis reign saw monumental Buddhist architecture, spreading relic-based devotion.Cultural SynthesisKaniṣka’s era is marked by Greco-Buddhist art and multilingual inscriptions.
📜 Primary Sources
SourceDescriptionAvadānaśatakaSanskrit text mentioning Kaniṣka’s devotion and relic redistribution.Fayuan ZhulinChinese Buddhist encyclopedia, describes the relic stories.Xuanzang's TravelsMentions the Kaniṣka Stūpa as a pilgrimage site with Buddha relics.ArchaeologyThe Kaniṣka Casket (discovered in 1908) confirmed his role in relic enshrinement.
🏯 Legacy
Kaniṣka’s relic enshrinement program continued the mission of King Asoka.
The relics spread across Afghanistan, Pakistan, Northern India, and even influenced the Silk Road Buddhist expansion.
His Mahāstūpa (महास्तूप) at Peshawar stood as a sacred center for centuries.
A. Kaniṣka’s Reign and Buddhist Patronage
Ruled the Kushan Empire (c. 127–150 CE) in Central Asia and North India.
A great patron of Buddhism, he convened the Fourth Buddhist Council in Kashmir (Sarvāstivāda tradition).
Under Kaniṣka, Gandharan Buddhist art flourished, and the Kaniṣka Stūpa (Peshawar) became a major pilgrimage site.
B. Kaniṣka’s Rediscovery of Relics
According to Chinese pilgrim Xuanzang (7th century CE) and Buddhist Sanskrit texts:
1. Discovery of Ashoka’s Relics
Kaniṣka excavated an old stūpa (possibly built by Ashoka) and found Buddha’s relics inside.
He enshrined them in a new grand stūpa in Peshawar (modern Pakistan).
2. The Kaniṣka Stūpa (Peshawar Stūpa)
Described by Xuanzang as 400 feet tall, adorned with gold and jewels.Contained relics of the Buddha, making it a major pilgrimage site.Archaeologists later found a relic casket (now in Peshawar Museum) with an inscription confirming Kaniṣka’s devotion.
3. Kaniṣka’s efforts facilitated the spread of relics to regions beyond India to Central Asia and eventually to China.Kaniṣka’s empire facilitated the spread of relics to Central Asia and China.Later, Chinese emperors (like Emperor Ming of Han) received Buddha's relics through Silk Road exchanges.
10. 🏛️ Comparison: King Asoka vs King Kaniṣka – Buddha Relic Redistribution
| Feature | King Asoka (c. 268–232 BCE) | King Kaniṣka (c. 127–150 CE) |
|---|---|---|
| Dynasty & Empire | Maurya Empire (India) | Kushan Empire (Central Asia–India) |
| Religious Orientation | Theravāda-centered patronage (also respected other sects) | Strong patron of Mahāyāna (also supported Sarvāstivāda and others) |
| Historical Sources | Mahāvaṃsa, Dīpavaṃsa, Aśokan Edicts, Pāli Commentaries | Avadānaśataka, Fayuan Zhulin, Xuanzang’s records, archaeological finds |
| Relic Action | Opened original 8 stūpas → redistributed relics into 84,000 stupas | Opened existing Asokan stupas → collected relics, enshrined in Kaniṣka Mahāstūpa and others |
| Key Motivation | Spread Buddhism empire-wide, gain merit, unify people | Strengthen Buddhist identity, expand Mahāyāna, build sacred prestige of empire |
| Famous Structure | No single stupa, but thousands across empire (e.g., Sāñchī) | Kaniṣka Mahāstūpa at Peshawar (a massive relic stupa) |
| Relic Containers | Various thūpas and urns, some decorated | Kaniṣka Casket—a gold reliquary discovered in Peshawar |
| Geographic Impact | India (especially Central & South), Sri Lanka | Gandhāra, Central Asia, parts of North India and Silk Road regions |
| Legacy | Standardized Buddhism in South Asia, promoted Theravāda, relic worship, and Dhamma policies |
Promoted Gandhāran Buddhist art, Mahāyāna spread to Central & East Asia, relic enshrinement in monumental stūpas |
To Be Continue to 2025.....
Research Journey Nears Completion
Dear Dhamma Friends,
With mudita (sympathetic joy), I share that my pariyatti (theoretical study) journey began on the full moon of August 2020, guided by samma-sankappa (right intention) and samma-ditthi (right view). This path of investigation is moving towards its natural conclusion in August 2025, following the middle way - majjhima patipada.
Through these five vassas (rainy seasons), each step has unfolded with yoniso manasikara (wise attention), staying true to the original adhitthana (determination). Like the steady flow of a river towards the ocean, this research has maintained its course.
In the spirit of kalyana-mittata (spiritual friendship), I have shared my patipatti (practical application) insights and discoveries through this digital medium. Your saddhā (confidence) and support have been like the supporting conditions that help a lotus grow from the mud towards the sunlight.
My heart is filled with katañññuta (gratitude) for your time spent reading these reflections and for walking alongside me on this Dhamma path.
With upekkha (equanimity), I acknowledge that while my gavesana (research) treads a previously explored path, it has generated vivada (debate) - particularly within the Myanmar parisa (Buddhist community). Some have experienced patigha (resistance) towards the findings, which is understandable through the lens of pubbangama (prior conditioning).
Following samma-vaca (right speech) and samma-kammanta (right action), I chose to present this work with sacca (truthfulness), supported by the foundation of existing pariyatti (theoretical studies). The documented evidence from respected institutions serves as pamana (valid authority) in this field.
Just as the Buddha taught in the Kalama Sutta, we should not accept things solely based on tradition (paramparā) or because they are spoken by respected teachers. Instead, we should investigate with wisdom (pañña) and verify through direct knowledge (paccakkha-ñāna).
While some venerable teachers may hold different views, my responsibility has been to maintain samma-ajiva (right livelihood) through honest academic work. Like the Buddha's teaching of ehipassiko (come and see), this research invites investigation rather than blind acceptance.
With adhitthana (determination) and khanti (patience), I remain committed to this contribution to knowledge, guided by the principle of yoniso manasikara (wise attention).
Your reflection touches the profound intersection of lokiya (mundane) and lokuttara (supramundane) understanding. Indeed, the nature of sarira-dhatu (sacred relics) and their adhitthana (spiritual power) extends beyond what mere paccakkha (direct empirical evidence) can reveal.
As the Buddha taught in AN 4.77, there are four imponderables (acinteyya):
- The Buddha-sphere (buddha-visaya)
- The jhana-sphere (jhana-visaya)
- The results of kamma (kamma-vipaka)
- Speculation about the world (loka-cinta)
My research journey reflects the wisdom of recognizing both paramattha-sacca (ultimate truth) and sammuti-sacca (conventional truth). While scientific pariyatti (theoretical study) serves its purpose, the deeper understanding often emerges through:
- Saddha (confidence in the teachings)
- Bhavana (mental development)
- Patipatti (practical application)
- Pativedha (penetrative insight)
As my transition from pure gavesana (academic research) to a more contemplative approach, i will following the natural progression from sutamaya-pañña (wisdom through learning) to cintamaya-pañña (wisdom through reflection) and ultimately towards bhavanamaya-pañña (wisdom through direct experience).
I have fulfilled My scholarly duty with integrity by:
1. Speaking truth (sacca) by presenting authentic research findings
2. Practicing non-attachment (upekkhā) to how others receive my work
3. Following the Middle Way by neither suppressing the truth nor aggressively pushing my views
4. Maintaining equanimity (upekkhā) when faced with disagreement
As the Buddha taught in AN 4.73, there are four types of people in the world -
1- those who understand quickly,
2- those who understand through detailed explanation,
3- those who need guidance and practice, and
4- those who merely learn the words.
Similarly, my research findings may be received differently by different scholars.
The wise approach is to:
- Present the truth with compassion (karuṇā)
- Remain unattached to outcomes
- Let go of the need to convince others
- Focus on the merit (puñña) of honest scholarly work
As stated in the Dhammapada (Dhp 224):
"Speak the truth, yield not to anger, give when asked even if little. By these three conditions, one goes to the presence of the gods."
My role was to illuminate truth through research. How others receive it is their kamma. I have practiced Right Livelihood (Sammā Ājīva) by completing My scholarly duties with integrity.
May your continued journey into this sacred dimension be guided by samma-ditthi (right view) and illuminate the path for others seeking deeper understanding.
With metta and adhitthana,
Sao Dhammasami
Research Scholor /Author
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