Ramgram Stupa (𑀭𑀸𑀫𑀕𑀸𑀫𑀣𑀽𑀧)

 

Location and Background

• Ramgram Stupa is located in Parasi District, Nepal, about 23 km from the Indian border.

• It is mentioned in important Buddhist literature such as:

  • Samantapāsādikā (Vinaya Commentary)

  • Travel records of Faxian (Fa-Hien, 5th c. CE)

  • Travel accounts of Xuanzang (Hiuen-Tsang, 7th c. CE)

The stupa also appears in artistic depictions and inscriptions at major Buddhist sites such as Bharhut, Sanchi, Amarāvatī, Nagarjunakoṇḍa, and Sarnath.

Archaeological Evidence

At Amarāvatī Stupa (Guntur District, Andhra Pradesh), British archaeologist Sir Walter Elliot excavated the site in 1859 CE (B.E. 2402), uncovering a massive stupa and numerous relics.

One important find was a white marble slab carving depicting:

• An elephant king offering flowers at the stupa

• A Nāga (serpent deity) coiling around the stupa

This panel is understood as representing Ramgram Stupa.

The Inscription

At the base of this Amarāvatī panel, an inscription in Prakrit language and Brāhmī script (c. 3rd–5th century CE, per Alexander Cunningham) reads:

𑀣𑁂𑀭𑀲𑀘𑁂𑀢𑀺𑀬𑀯𑀤𑀓𑀲𑀪𑀓𑀬𑀢𑀩𑀼𑀥𑀺𑀦𑁄𑀪𑀕𑀺𑀦𑀺𑀬𑀪𑀺𑀔𑀼𑀦𑀺𑀬𑀸𑀩𑀼𑀥𑀸𑀬𑀘𑀤𑀸𑀦𑀤𑁂𑀬𑀤𑀫𑀲𑀻𑀳𑀣𑀦

Transliteration (simplified):
Therasa Cetiya-vadakasa bhagavato Buddhi-bhaginiya bhikkhuniya Buddhāya ca dāna-deyadhammam sīhasthāna

Translation:
“The pious gift of this lion-throne was made by Elder (Thera) Buddhi, the one who extended the base of the stupa, together with his younger sister, the bhikkhunī (nun) Buddha.”

Significance

1. Religious Heritage

   • Ramgram Stupa is unique in tradition: it is believed to contain one of the original eight relic shares of the Buddha, and according to texts, it was never opened or distributed further because it was protected by Nāgas.

   • Its depiction at Amarāvatī and elsewhere confirms its centrality in Buddhist sacred geography.

2. Donors and Monastic Life

   • The inscription preserves the names of two important religious figures:

     • Thera Buddhi (a senior monk)

     • Bhikkhunī Buddha (his younger sister, a Buddhist nun)

   • This is a rare example where both male and female monastics are jointly credited as patrons in a stupa-related inscription.

3. Preservation

   • The Amarāvatī slab with this depiction and inscription is now housed in the British Museum, London.

Conclusion

The Ramgram Stupa, through both textual tradition and archaeological evidence, emerges as one of the most important monuments in early Buddhism. Its artistic representation at Amarāvatī and the associated inscription not only connect it to the wider Buddhist world but also immortalize the devotion of Thera Buddhi and Bhikkhunī Buddha, whose joint offering still inspires reverence today.

🙏 Respect and homage to Thera Buddhi and Bhikkhunī Buddha, whose gift continues to guide later generations in understanding the sacred Buddhist past.

“Raya Asoka”: Epigraphic and Sculptural Evidence of Emperor Aśoka from Sannati

 

Introduction

Emperor Aśoka the Great (Ashoka, c. 268–232 BCE) is remembered as one of the most illustrious rulers of ancient India, both as a sovereign and as a patron of Buddhism. Since India’s independence, he has been celebrated across political and religious lines—by Hindus, Buddhists, and Jains alike—as a national statesman of unmatched stature.

The four-lion capital from his pillar at Sarnath has been adopted as the national emblem of India, and the name Ashoka remains immensely popular—borne by millions across the subcontinent.

Reign and Relationship with Buddhism

According to the Mahāvaṃsa and Samantapāsādikā, Aśoka ascended the throne around 218 years after the Buddha’s Parinibbāna (though dates vary depending on the source).

Initially a follower of Brahmanism, Aśoka later embraced Buddhism and became its most prominent royal supporter. His patronage, however, caused rival ascetic sects to lose influence, leading many to infiltrate the Saṅgha—sometimes legitimately, sometimes fraudulently. This resulted in widespread disarray, to the point that arahants refused to participate in communal rituals.

When Aśoka attempted to intervene by sending troops, soldiers exceeded their orders and killed numerous monks. To restore order, he sought counsel from Moggaliputta Tissa Thera, who oversaw the Saṅghasodhana (purification of the monastic community) by determining which monks were properly ordained.

Aśoka subsequently dispatched missionaries to nine regions beyond India, ensuring the Dharma’s survival abroad. His own reflection was that:

“If the Bodhi tree (the Dharma) should fall in its original land, its branches spread abroad will continue to flourish.”

Discovery of the “Raya Asoka” Inscription

Strikingly, no authentic sculptural representation of Aśoka had been identified in India—despite his renown—until the late 20th century.

In 1965 (B.E. 2508), Indian archaeologists excavating near Sannati in Karnataka uncovered the ruins of the Kanaganahalli Stupa (built c. 3rd century BCE). The stupa’s drum was decorated with finely carved marble slabs, many bearing donor inscriptions in Brāhmī script that listed 35 monks, 12 nuns, numerous lay devotees, and 67 members of the Sātavāhana dynasty.

Among the slabs was a particularly significant one: a standing male figure sheltered by attendants with a parasol. Above the image, a Brāhmī-Prakrit inscription reads:

𑀭𑀸𑀬𑀸𑀅𑀲𑁄𑀓 – Raya Asoka
(“Raya Asoka” = Raja Asoka, “King Aśoka”)

This is the first known sculptural depiction of Aśoka, identified explicitly by inscription.

Linguistic Note: “Raya” vs. “Raja”

The inscription’s use of “Raya” instead of the standard “Raja” is philologically intriguing.

In several inscriptions from Karnataka, the consonant cha (च) appears regularly as ya (य), reflecting regional phonetic shifts. This variation is comparable to dialectical differences in Thai, where:

• Standard Thai: Racha (ราชา)

• Northern Thai: Racha / Rāja

• Lao/Isan: Rasa

Thus, “Raya” should be understood not as a different title, but as a localized orthographic variant of “Raja.”

Historical Significance

1. First Visual Evidence of Aśoka – The Kanaganahalli slab provides the earliest known sculptural representation of Aśoka, corroborated by inscription.

2. Epigraphic Linguistics – The “Raya” spelling illustrates regional phonological tendencies in ancient Karnataka.

3. Religious Context – The depiction confirms Aśoka’s role as a pious lay Buddhist (upāsaka) devoted to the Five Precepts.

4. Governance of the Saṅgha – Aśoka’s policy was not one of arbitrary interference, but of “protecting true monks, expelling false monks”, implemented in consultation with arahant elders and rooted in Vinaya, not merely royal law.

Conclusion

The Kanaganahalli inscription of “Raya Asoka” is a landmark discovery that reshapes our understanding of the Mauryan emperor. It provides the first combined epigraphic and sculptural confirmation of Aśoka’s image, his Buddhist identity, and the linguistic milieu of early Deccan inscriptions.

Aśoka emerges not only as a legendary ruler but also as a historical figure whose presence can now be seen—literally—in stone. His example underscores the principle that authentic protection of the Saṅgha requires fidelity to the Dharma-Vinaya, rather than reliance on worldly law or authoritarian intervention.

The Bandhugupta Inscription at Sarnath: An Epigraphic and Art Historical Study

Introduction

Among the significant epigraphic remains of early Indian Buddhism, the inscription of the Elder Bandhugupta discovered at Sarnath stands as a unique testimony to both the religious life of the Gupta era and the artistic innovations of its sculptors. Situated beneath the pedestal of a headless Buddha image, this inscription not only preserves the memory of a revered elder but also exemplifies a rare technique of stone carving. The present study translates, contextualizes, and analyzes the Bandhugupta inscription within the wider framework of Gupta history, Buddhist art, and epigraphic practice.

The Archaeological Context

The inscription was unearthed in 1902 (B.E. 2445) near the Dhamekh Stupa at Sarnath by Friedrich Oertel, during systematic excavations of the site. The image to which the inscription belongs is a seated Buddha in bhūmisparśa-mudrā (earth-touching gesture), a canonical representation of the Buddha’s victory over Māra at Bodh Gaya.

Although the head of the statue was already missing at the time of its discovery, the prabhāmaṇḍala (halo) behind the figure remained intact. Stylistically, the sculpture belongs to the Gupta school of art, characterized by idealized proportions, serene expression, and subtle modeling of the body.

What distinguishes this statue, however, is not its form but the raised-letter inscription carved beneath its pedestal—a rare feature in Indian epigraphy.

The Inscription

The text of the inscription, in Sanskrit and Brahmi script of the Gupta period, reads:

देयधर्मो यं शाक्यभिक्षो स्थवीर बन्धुगुप्तस्य

Transliteration:
Deyadharmo yaṁ Śākyabhikṣo sthavīra Bandhuguptasya

Translation:
“This pious gift (deyadharma) belongs to the Śākya monk, the Elder (Sthavīra) Bandhugupta.”

Epigraphic Note

The terminology is significant:

• Deyadharma – denotes a religious gift, merit-making donation, or pious endowment. It indicates that the image functioned as a material support for Buddhist devotion, consecrated through the act of donation.

• Śākya Bhikṣu – literally “the monk of the Śākya lineage,” a standard honorific for ordained monks tracing spiritual descent from the Buddha.

• Sthavīra – a Sanskrit equivalent of the Pali Thera, denoting an elder or senior monk, often with the connotation of spiritual authority.

The use of such terminology situates Bandhugupta within the monastic hierarchy of the Gupta period and reflects the continuity of early Buddhist honorific titles.

Artistic Technique

Unlike most inscriptions that were incised by chiseling grooves into the stone, the Bandhugupta inscription was created in raised relief. This method required the sculptor to carefully cut away the stone surrounding the drafted letters, leaving the inscription standing out in high relief.

Such a process was exceptionally demanding, as even a minor error could damage or detach the letters. The result is an inscription of remarkable visual prominence, suggesting that both the donor and the artisans intended to emphasize its enduring visibility.

To date, this is the only known example of such relief-carved inscription at Sarnath, marking it as a unique artifact in Gupta epigraphy.

The Gupta Dynasty and Religious Patronage

The Gupta dynasty (c. 240–550 CE / B.E. 783–1093) was one of the most influential dynasties of early India. Seventeen rulers carried forward the lineage, their names often ending with the suffix -gupta, such as Chandragupta, Samudragupta, Skandagupta, and Buddhagupta.

The capital at Pāṭaliputra (modern Patna) served as the political and cultural hub, with influence extending across Bihar, Bengal, Uttar Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, Haryana, and Rajasthan. While the dynasty supported Hinduism, Buddhism, and Jainism, the period is particularly noted for the flourishing of Buddhist art at Sarnath and the growth of Nālandā University as a major center of Buddhist learning.

Monks Bearing the Gupta Suffix

An interesting phenomenon of the Gupta era is the adoption of the suffix -gupta not only by rulers but also by monks and intellectuals. Known examples include:

1. Bandhugupta – Sarnath inscription (this study)

2. Prajñāgupta – Kurkihar inscription

3. Kṣāntigupta – Nālandā inscription

4. Dharmagupta – Kanheri Cave No. 3 inscription

5. Nandigupta – Sanchi inscription

6. Buddhagupta – Ajanta Cave No. 2 inscription

7. Manorathagupta – Sarnath inscription

8. Saṅghagupta – Ajanta Cave No. 10 inscription

9. Arahantagupta – Sanchi inscription

This practice suggests that the Gupta name carried symbolic prestige, possibly signifying both cultural affiliation with the ruling dynasty and a spiritual identity within the Buddhist order.

Significance of the Bandhugupta Inscription

The Bandhugupta inscription provides crucial insights into the Buddhist landscape of the Gupta age:

1. Religious Identity – It confirms the active role of monks as patrons of religious art, not merely recipients of royal donations.

2. Epigraphic Rarity – The raised-relief inscription demonstrates an extraordinary technique, unique in the corpus of Gupta inscriptions.

3. Historical Continuity – The title “Sthavīra” links the monastic hierarchy of the Gupta era with earlier Buddhist traditions.

4. Integration with Royal Culture – The monk’s adoption of the “-gupta” suffix reflects the interconnection between the Buddhist Sangha and the ruling dynasty’s cultural sphere.

Conclusion

The Bandhugupta inscription at Sarnath represents a confluence of religious devotion, artistic innovation, and historical identity. As the only known relief-carved inscription of its kind at the site, it bears testimony to the refinement of Gupta artisanship and the active participation of Buddhist monks in the cultural life of the dynasty.

Far beyond a simple donor’s record, the inscription memorializes the Elder Bandhugupta’s devotion and preserves for posterity a glimpse into the religious and artistic vibrancy of Gupta India.

The Amaravati Stupa Inscription: Evidence of the Ancient Indian Saṅgha

Introduction

The Great Stupa of Amaravati, located in present-day Guntur District, Andhra Pradesh (South India), is one of the most important Buddhist monuments of early India. Its construction began around 300 B.E. (c. 1st century BCE). Originally built of stone and red bricks, it was later encased with carved marble slabs of remarkable artistic and epigraphic value.

Numerous inscriptions have been recovered from the site. Among them, one particularly noteworthy inscription provides unique evidence about the ancient Buddhist monastic community (Saṅgha), including the continuity of arahants well into the Common Era.

The Inscription

This inscription was engraved on a white marble pillar, now preserved in the Amaravati Museum. Written in Prakrit language using the Brāhmī script, it dates to approximately 300–500 B.E. (c. 1st–2nd century CE).

Text (transliteration):

𑀭𑀬𑀲𑁂𑀮𑀦𑀺𑀯𑀸𑀲𑀺𑀦𑁄 𑀯𑀲𑀺𑀪𑀽𑀢𑀲
𑀫𑀳𑀸𑀣𑁂𑀭𑀲 𑀅𑀬𑀭 𑀪𑀽𑀢𑀭𑀔𑀺𑀢𑀲
𑀅𑀢𑁂𑀯𑀸𑀲𑀺𑀓𑀲 𑀘𑀽𑀮𑀅𑀬𑀭𑀲 𑀅𑀭𑀳
𑀢𑀲 𑀅𑀬𑀺𑀭 𑀩𑀼𑀥𑀭𑀔𑀺𑀢𑀲 𑀅𑀢𑁂𑀯𑀸
𑀲𑀺𑀦𑀺𑀬𑀸 𑀪𑀺𑀔𑀼𑀦𑀺𑀬𑀸 𑀦𑀤𑀲 𑀣𑀪𑁄 𑀤𑀸𑀦𑀁

Restored reading:

(Ra)yaselanivāsino Vasibhūtasa (Ma)hātherasa ayira Bhūtarakkhitasa (Ate)vāsikasa Cūlāyilasa Ara(h)atasa ayira Budharakkhitasa atevā- siniyā Bhikkhuniyā Nandasa thabho dānaṃ

Translation:

“This stone pillar is the meritorious gift (dāna) of Cūlāyila, the pupil (antevāsika) of the Great Elder (Mahāthera) Bhūtarakkhita, skilled in vasi, who resided at Rayasela; and also a pupil of the bhikkhunī Nandā, who herself was a pupil of the Arahant, the Great Elder Buddharakkhita.”

Key Information from the Inscription

1. The Donor:

   • The donor was Cūlāyila, identified as an antevāsika (pupil or disciple).

2. Lineage of Teachers:

   • He was a disciple of Mahāthera Bhūtarakkhita, described as “skilled in vasi” and resident of Rayasela.

   • He was also a disciple of the bhikkhunī Nandā, herself a pupil of the Arahant Mahāthera Buddharakkhita.

3. Reference to an Arahant:

   • The explicit mention of “Arahat Mahāthera Buddharakkhita” is of great historical significance, since it provides epigraphic evidence of arahants still active in India around 500–600 B.E. (c. 1st–2nd century CE).

Historical Significance

• Evidence of Arahants: This inscription is among the rare epigraphic records that explicitly attest to the existence of arahants in the centuries after the Buddha’s Parinibbāna.

• Integration of Bhikkhunīs: The lineage highlights the active role of bhikkhunīs (nuns) in transmitting the Dhamma and training disciples.

• Regional Buddhist Networks: The reference to Rayasela suggests the presence of established monastic centers beyond Amaravati itself, connected through discipleship lineages.

• Continuity of Saṅgha Traditions: The document illustrates how discipleship (antevāsika relationships) preserved continuity within both male and female branches of the Saṅgha.

Conclusion

The Amaravati pillar inscription not only preserves the memory of its donor, Cūlāyila, but also offers invaluable insights into the early Buddhist monastic community. Its reference to both monks and nuns, and especially to an Arahant Mahāthera, underscores the vibrancy and sanctity of the Saṅgha during the early centuries CE.

It stands as a vital piece of epigraphic evidence confirming that arahants were still present in India well into the Common Era, and that both monks and nuns played crucial roles in sustaining the lineage of discipleship at the great centers of Buddhist devotion such as Amaravati.

---

The Mathurā Lion Capital Inscription: Evidence of Early Buddhist Sects

 

Introduction

Around 200 years after the Buddha’s Parinibbāna, the Buddhist community began to branch into as many as 18 different schools (nikāyas). These sects developed due to differences in interpretation of doctrine and monastic discipline. Among them were the Theravāda (the original school), Mahāsāṃghika, Mahīśāsaka, Sarvāstivāda, Sāṃmitīya, Dharmaguptaka, Kassapīya, and others.

Archaeological discoveries at Mathurā provide important evidence for the existence of these schools in early India. Inscriptions found there mention at least four Buddhist sects:

• Mahāsāṃghika

• Sāṃmitīya

• Dharmaguptaka (Dharmottarika)

• Sarvāstivāda (Sabbatthivāda)

The most famous example of this sectarian epigraphy is the Lion Capital Inscription, discovered in the 19th century.

The Discovery

In 1869 CE (B.E. 2412), Indian archaeologist Pandit Bhagwan Lal Indraji uncovered a lion sculpture in Sītala village, Mathurā. The sculpture, carved from red sandstone, was artistically simple and somewhat crude in workmanship.

What makes the artifact extraordinary is the long inscription carved around the lion, even extending under its base.

• Script: Kharoṣṭhī

• Language: Prakrit with Sanskrit elements

• Unusual Feature: Kharoṣṭhī script was normally used in northwestern India (Taxila, Swat Valley, Bamiyan, Afghanistan). Its appearance in Mathurā—where Brāhmī was dominant—suggests that the lion capital may have been transported from Taxila.

Today, the Lion Capital is preserved in the British Museum, London.

The Inscription

The inscription was dedicated by members of a royal family of Indo-Scythian (Śaka) heritage. The most important figure is the Great Queen Ayasia Kamuia, daughter of Prince Kharaosta Kamuia, linked to the ruling line of the Mahākṣatrapas (Great Satraps).

Translation (Summary):

• Queen Ayasia Kamuia, together with her mother Nadha Diaka, grandmother Abuhola, and other relatives, established a sacred site outside the monastery (saṅghārāma).

• They enshrined relics of the Buddha Śākyamuni, after homage to the deity Muki, and consecrated a stūpa, horses, and a monastery.

• The offering was specifically made for the monastic community of the Sarvāstivāda sect, welcoming monks from all four quarters (cāturdikā).

• Prince Kharaosta Kamuia consecrated other princes—Khalamasa and Maja—with approval of the royal family.

• Monks Buddhadeva and Buddhila, both identified as members of the Sarvāstivāda sect, were given a cave monastery and the "water of liberation" (mukti-jala).

• The dedication honors all Buddhas, the Dhamma, the Saṅgha, and all kings.

• The inscription also names Taxila (Takkasilā) and figures such as Khardasa, Kronina of Taxila, and the Kalasamusa.

Key Point:

The term “Sarvāstivādin” occurs four times in the inscription, making it one of the strongest epigraphic evidences for the presence of this school in India.

Historical Significance

1. Sectarian Evidence

   • Confirms the existence and royal patronage of the Sarvāstivāda sect in India during the early centuries CE.

   • Demonstrates that multiple Buddhist schools coexisted in Mathurā, including Mahāsāṃghikas, Sāṃmitīyas, and Dharmaguptakas.

2. Royal Patronage

   • The donors belonged to the family of the Śaka Great Satraps, Indo-Scythian rulers who controlled northwestern India.

   • This shows the active role of foreign dynasties in supporting Indian Buddhism.

3. Geographical Networks

   • The mention of Taxila suggests close religious and cultural links between northwestern India and Mathurā.

   • The use of Kharoṣṭhī script in central India supports the idea that the lion capital was originally from Taxila and later brought to Mathurā.

4. Monastic Life

   • The inscription records donations of monasteries, relics, caves, and ritual water, shedding light on monastic practices and lay-monastic interactions.

Conclusion

The Mathurā Lion Capital Inscription is one of the most important documents in early Buddhist history. It not only preserves the names of donors and rulers but also explicitly identifies the Sarvāstivāda sect, providing rare epigraphic proof of sectarian Buddhism in India.

By linking Mathurā and Taxila, the inscription highlights the interconnected nature of Buddhist communities across regions. Its references to kings, queens, monks, and sects illustrate the complex web of patronage and practice that sustained Buddhism during the early centuries of the Common Era.

About 200 years after the Buddha's time, Buddhism branched into 18 sects:

1. Theravāda (original),

2. Mahāsāṃghika,

3. Gokulika,

4. Ekavyohārika,

5. Paññattivāda,

6. Bahuśrutīya,

7. Jetavaniya,

8. Mahīśāsaka,

9. Vajjiputtaka,

10. Dharmottarika,

11. Bhadrayānīya,

12. Channāgārika,

13. Sāṃmitīya,

14. Sarvāstivāda (Sabbatthivāda),

15. Dharmottarika,

16. Kassapīya,

17. Saṅkantika, and

18. Suttavāda.

At Mathurā, archaeologists have discovered inscriptions related to four of these 18 Buddhist sects:

1. Mahāsāṃghika

2. Sāṃmitīya

3. Dharmaguptaka (also referred to as Dharmottarika)

4. Sarvāstivāda (also called Sabbatthivāda)

In 1869 CE (B.E. 2412), an Indian archaeologist named Pandit Bhagwan Lal Indraji discovered a lion sculpture in Sitala village, Mathurā. The lion was carved from red sandstone. Artistically, it may not be considered very refined.

What makes it remarkable is the inscription carved around it. The script used is Kharoṣṭhī, and the language is Prakrit mixed with Sanskrit. Kharoṣṭhī script was typically used in northern India, such as Taxila, the Swat Valley, and Bamiyan in Afghanistan. But Mathurā is located in central India, where this script was not commonly used. The presence of this script suggests that the lion sculpture may have been relocated from northern India.

The inscription encircles the lion figure, including even under the base—engraved extensively in Kharoṣṭhī using Prakrit-Sanskrit hybrid. Below is a translated excerpt of the key parts:

Translation of the Inscription (Summary):

The Great Queen of Mahākṣatrapa Rājava, Ayasia Kamuia, daughter of Yuvraj Kharaosta, together with her mother Nadha Diaka, and the grandmother Abuhola, and other relatives such as Pisapasi and Hayuara, along with her brother and daughter Hana, established this sacred site.

On this land, outside the Sanghārāma (monastery), they enshrined the relics of the Buddha Śākyamuni after performing homage to the famous Muki, along with horses, stupa, and monastery.

This dedication was made for the monastic community of the Sarvāstivādin sect who had come from the four directions. Prince Kharaosta Kamuia consecrated Prince Khalamasa and Prince Maja, the youngest sons, with the consent of the royal family.

They also offered a cave monastery and the water of liberation to monks Buddhadeva and Buddhila from the city, who belonged to the Sarvāstivāda sect, in honor of King Kusulapatika and King Mevagimiyika, under the trust of the Sarvāstivādin community.

This offering was made to honor all Buddhas, the Dhamma, the Sangha, and all kings. It also mentions Khardasa, Kronina of Taxila, and all the Kalasamusa.

The term "Sarvāstivādin" appears four times in the inscription. The monks mentioned as recipients of the offering are Buddhadeva and Buddhila, both from the Sarvāstivāda sect, residing in a cave monastery. The city of Taxila (Takkasilā) is explicitly named, which strongly suggests that the lion capital was originally from Taxila.

Today, the Lion Capital is displayed in the British Museum, London, United Kingdom.

The Blessed One's Tooth Relics and Their Holy Shrines

 

There Is More Than One Buddhaghosa

In 1901 CE (2444 BE), a Dutch scholar named Dr. Jean Philippe Vogel (J.Vogel)—renowned for his expertise in Sanskrit and Indian studies, especially Indian paleography—was appointed by the Archaeological Survey of India (ASI) as the head of archaeological missions in the western territories, including present-day Pakistan and northern India. Though he had previously taught at a university for a short time, his exceptional scholarship quickly caught the attention of ASI. When Vogel arrived in the field, he was shocked to discover there was no official office, no infrastructure—only three Indian assistants and one cook. He initially had to rent an office in Lahore before later relocating to Taxila, since ASI wanted a presence in the western region despite lacking proper facilities at the time. In 1905 CE (2448 BE), Dr. Vogel and his team began excavating the ancient Buddhist site of Loriyan Tangai in the Swat Valley, now in Pakistan. They uncovered an extraordinary number of Gandhāran-period Buddha images, many of which were transported and displayed in various museums.

One particular artifact stood out: a Buddha statue in the Abhaya (blessing) posture, of which only the base remains—the image itself has been lost. This base, retrieved from Loriyan Tangai, bears an inscription in the Kharosthi script, composed in a mix of Prakrit and Sanskrit, written in a single line: “Sa (saṃvacchare) 1111001044 Porṭhavadas di (divase) 204111 Buddhaghosasa danamukhe Saghorumas sadaviyaris.” Translation: "In the year 318, on the 27th day of the month Bhadrapada (around August–September), this religious donation was made by Venerable Teacher Buddhaghosa, together with his companion, Venerable Sanghavarman." This inscription clearly states that the base of the Gandhāran Buddha statue was donated by Venerable Buddhaghosa and Venerable Sanghavarman.

However, this Buddhaghosa is not the same person as the renowned Theravāda scholar Buddhaghosa, who lived around 1000 BE (approx. 5th century CE). The famous Buddhaghosa crossed the sea to Sri Lanka, mastered the Tipiṭaka at the Mahāvihāra, and authored revered commentaries like the Samantapāsādikā and many others. The Buddhaghosa mentioned in the Loriyan Tangai inscription, however, lived earlier—around 700 BE (3rd century BCE to 1st century CE)—and is clearly a different person. Today, this Gandhāran-style Buddha base is on display at the British Museum in London, United Kingdom. Anyone wishing to view it can fly directly to London and head straight to the British Museum. Personally, the author has visited it twice.

Shahr-I-Bahlol

When this name is mentioned, many people may not recognize what it refers to. It is the name of a large monastic complex located in the Swat Valley of Pakistan. The site was explored and excavated starting in 1903 by Jean Philippe Vogel, a Dutch archaeologist and professor at the University of Amsterdam. He was an expert in Sanskrit and Indian Studies and was invited to serve as the director of archaeological excavations in the Northwestern Province.

He came to investigate and excavate this ancient Buddhist site and discovered numerous artifacts. The Buddhist art found here is in the Gandhara style, featuring Greek-style facial features. A total of 123 Buddha heads were unearthed, 51 of which were complete statues. The largest one, seen in the photograph, is over 3 meters tall and found in a reclining position.

The stupas at this site were carved with images of the Buddha surrounding them. Vogel instructed workers to saw off the carvings so they could be transported and preserved in a museum (as shown in the photograph), and the site was then declared a protected archaeological area.

However, after the region became part of the nation of Pakistan, the Buddhist site was neglected. Local villagers began constructing Muslim graves (kubur) within the area, and today, the site has become a large cemetery.

Uncertain Future of the Ashoka Rock Edict in Sasaram

Sasaram is a major town located midway between Bodh Gaya and Varanasi, in Kaimur District, Bihar. On top of a hill in this area lies a rock inscription of Emperor Ashoka, engraved on a stone slab in the Prakrit language using the Brahmi script. The inscription reads as follows:

Line 1: Devānaṃ piye hevaṃ āha ..... piyāni savacchālāni (saṃvaccharāni) aṃ upāsake sumi na cu bāḍhaṃ alakante
Line 2: Savacchale (saṃvacchare) sādhike aṃ .......... etena ca antalena jambudīpasi anmisandevā santa
Line 3: Munisā misandeva kaṭā pala... iyaṃ phale no ... yaṃ mahatala ca cakiye pāvatave khudakena pi phala-
Line 4: Kamanīne vipule pi suaga ... kiye ālā .... ve se etāye aṭhāye iyaṃ sāvaṇe khudakā ca udālā ca pa-
Line 5: Lakamantu antā pi ca jāṇantu cilaṭhitike (ciraṭhitike) ca palākame hotu iyaṃ ca aṭhe (aṭṭhe) vadisati vipulaṃ pi ca vaṭhisati
Line 6: Diyādiyaṃ avadhiyeṇa diyaḍiyaṃ vaṭhisati iyaṃ ca sāvaṇe vivuthena dhuvaṃ sapannā lāti-
Line 7: Satā vivuthā ti 200 40 ima ca aṭhaṃ (aṭṭhaṃ) pavatesu likhāpayāthā ya...vā a..
Line 8: Thi hetā silāṭhambhā tata pi likhāpayatha ti

Translation:

“I have declared myself an upāsaka (lay follower of the Buddha) for one year, but I have not exerted much effort. A year or more has passed... and during that time, the people of Jambudīpa (India) were not associated with the devas (divine beings). Now, I have brought about a connection between humans and the devas. This is the result of effort... Not only the high-born can attain heavenly realms; even the solitary and lowly can reach them if they strive earnestly.

Therefore, this declaration has been issued for this very purpose: to encourage both the lowly and the noble to exert effort, and to inform the people in my realm of this possibility. This diligence shall endure for a long time. I will push this initiative forward significantly—by at least one and a half times its current pace.

This decree was issued while I was on tour. At that time, I had spent 256 nights on tour. Let this message be inscribed on stone. And wherever there are stone pillars throughout my empire, this message shall be inscribed there as well.”

This inscription reveals Emperor Ashoka’s personal transition after embracing Buddhism. He admits to initially being a less diligent upāsaka but later developed a deeper understanding of the Dhamma. The inscription notes that in earlier times, the people of Jambudīpa had little connection with the devas, but under Ashoka’s influence, a spiritual bond was re-established. His aim was to spiritually uplift his people, irrespective of status.

In 1969 CE (2512 BE), some members of the Muslim community began building a mosque near the site of this inscription. Over time, the area was taken over, and the historic edict was completely covered with a green cloth. Tourists and visitors were no longer allowed to view the monument.

In 2015 CE (2558 BE), the Archaeological Survey of India (ASI) ordered the green cloth to be removed and declared the area a protected monument. However, the issue remains unresolved. Just last year, the official signage designating it as a government-protected site was taken down.

The Greco-Buddhist Masterpiece from Swat Valley

Discovery of a Hellenistic Treasure

In 1907 (2450 BE), American archaeologist D.B. Spooner of the Archaeological Survey of India uncovered 48 Buddhist sculptures at Jamalgarhi, a monastic complex in Pakistan’s Swat Valley (ancient Uḍḍiyāna). Among them stood a striking black schist Buddha—now hailed as a pinnacle of Greco-Buddhist art.

---

The Statue’s Hellenistic Splendor

• Facial Features:

  • Straight, prominent nose (Greek: leptorrhine) flowing into the forehead (Greek profile).

  • Half-closed eyes (meditative gaze) blending Indian spirituality with Greek realism.

• Divine Entourage: Celestial beings (apsaras) flank the Buddha, their European-like faces echoing Greek deities.

• Mudra: The dharmachakra (teaching gesture), symbolizing the First Sermon.

The Inscription (Kharoṣṭhī script, hybrid Sanskrit-Prakrit):

"[This is] the religious gift of Shadakamitra, [who dedicated] the Jina Kumāra [‘Royal Buddha’] for the village of Hidda [modern Hadda, Afghanistan]."

• Date: ~150 CE (700 BE), Kushan era.

• Current Home: Peshawar Museum, Pakistan.

---

Why This Sculpture Matters

1. Cultural Fusion:

   • Greek artisans in Gandhara adapted Apollo’s idealized features to depict the Buddha—creating the first anthropomorphic Buddha images.

   • Contrasts with India’s earlier aniconic traditions (e.g., footprints, stupas).

2. Kushan Patronage:

   • King Kanishka (r. 127–150 CE) promoted this style, merging Roman aesthetics with Buddhist theology.

3. Lost Legacy:

   • Hadda’s monasteries (with 23,000+ Greco-Buddhist sculptures) were 90% destroyed in the 1990s—making this survivor priceless.

---

Xuanzang’s Forgotten Witness

The 7th-century pilgrim described Swat’s monasteries as "adorned with gold and jade." Today, only Peshawar Museum’s collection hints at that grandeur.

Did You Know? The term Jina Kumāra ("Victorious Prince") mirrors Greek "Basileus" (king)—elevating the Buddha to royal status.

(Source: Spooner’s Archaeological Survey of India Report, 1907–08)

The Bimaran Stupa Inscription: A Golden Relic of Gandharan Buddhism

Discovery by Charles Masson (1834–1837 CE / 2377–2380 BE)

While excavating Stupa No. 2 at Bimaran, Afghanistan, British explorer Charles Masson uncovered:

1. A gold reliquary depicting the Buddha flanked by Brahma and Indra.

2. A steatite casket with two Kharoṣṭhī inscriptions.

3. Coins of Indo-Scythian king Azes II (r. ~35–12 BCE), dating the relics to ~50 BCE (500 BE).

---

The Inscriptions: A Donor’s Devotion

1. Around the Casket:

"This religious gift of Śivarakṣita, son of Muñjavāda, is enshrined in honor of the Blessed One’s relics and for the worship of all Buddhas."

2. On the Lid:

"Relics of the Bhagavān [Buddha], donated by Śivarakṣita, son of Muñjavāda."

Key Details:

• Donor: Śivarakṣita, a layman from the Muñjavāda clan (possibly a merchant or official).

• Language: Hybrid Sanskrit-Prakrit in Kharoṣṭhī script—common in Gandharan Buddhism.

• Purpose: Merit-making for the donor’s family and all beings.

---

Why This Matters

1. Earliest Buddha Image?

   • The gold reliquary’s anthropomorphic Buddha (rare before 1st c. CE) suggests Greco-Buddhist art began earlier than thought.

2. Indo-Scythian Context:

   • Azes II’s coins confirm the stupa’s 1st-century BCE date, bridging Scythian and Kushan Buddhist patronage.

3. Tragic Loss:

   • The Taliban destroyed Bimaran Stupa in the 1990s—making Masson’s finds (now in the British Museum) irreplaceable.

---

Azes II & the "Forgotten" Buddhist Kings

The Indo-Scythians (Śakas), though nomadic invaders, embraced Buddhism—Azes II’s era saw:

• Construction of Bimaran and Butkara Stupas.

• Fusion of Greek, Persian, and Indian art styles.

Did You Know? The reliquary’s Buddha-Brahma-Indra triad mirrors Hindu iconography—showing early interfaith dialogue.

(Source: Buddhist Art of Gandhara, W. Zwalf, 1996)