The Buddhist Stupa Zurmala, located in the ancient region of Gandhara, serves as an important architectural and cultural emblem in the historical framework of the Kushan Empire. The Kushan Empire, which prospered from the 1st to the 3rd century AD in a large part of Afghanistan, Pakistan and the Northern India, was a crucial period for the spread and development of Buddhism. This empire acted as a vital conduit for the exchange of ideas, art and religion along the Silk Road, thus facilitating the dissemination of Buddhist lessons and practices (Iwamoto, 2019).
Located at a strategic crossroads, Stupa is not simply an architectural feat but also a visual representation of the complexities of cultural integration during the Kushan period. Zurmala Stupa is characterized by its hemispherical dome, a prominent characteristic that illustrates the stupas built during this time. The architectural design incorporates both indigenous artistic elements and influences from Hellenistic artistic traditions, central and Indian Asia. This merger reflects the role of the Kushan Empire as a crucible of different religious cultures and philosophies, promoting a dynamic environment for the evolution of Buddhist art and architecture (Khan, 2021).
In addition, stupas like Zurmala have served a fundamental religious function such as monuments of veneration and pilgrimage. Initially erected to house relics of the Buddha and other important personalities of Buddhism, the stupas were essential in the promotion of religious practices and community rallies. The Zurmala, in particular, underlines the idea of stupa as a focal point for ritual activities and spiritual commitment. The architectural arrangement, which was designed to facilitate circumambulation, encouraged the devotees to engage deeply with the spiritual and community dimensions of Buddhism, strengthening collective identities and shared beliefs (Gandhi, 2020).
The cultural meaning of Zurmala Stupa can be understood in the broader context of the accessibility of Buddhism during the Kushan Empire. At a time when religion was in a state of dynamic evolution, the stupas served as historical symbols which not only delimited the sacred space but also represented the booming infrastructure which supported the Buddhist pilgrimage. By establishing stupas along the commercial routes, Kushan leaders have effectively democratized access to Buddhist practices, which makes them at the disposal of a diversified fan of followers, in particular merchants, travelers and local populations. Such accessibility can be interpreted as a strategic effort from the Kushan authorities to arouse political legitimacy and promote social cohesion within their culturally pluralist empire (Fischer, 2018).
In summary, Zurmala Stupa is emblematic of the role of the Kushan Empire as a catalyst for cultural synthesis and religious proliferation. Its architectural characteristics, religious functions and contributions to the accessibility of Buddhism form the foundation on which subsequent discussions on its historical meaning can be constructed. By examining these aspects, a clearer understanding of the way stupa sums up the complex interaction between architecture, religion and cultural exchange during this pivot period in the history of the South in Asia., The Kushan Empire emerged as a dominant power in central Asia of the 1st centuries, covering significant parts of what is northern India, Pakistan, Afghanistan, and parts of Iran and Central Asia today. In its zenite, the empire served as a critical nexus for commercial routes, mainly through the Silk Route, which connected the Eastern regions of Asia to the Mediterranean world. This geographical extension not only facilitated economic prosperity, but it also played a crucial role in spreading cultural and religious ideas over vast distances. Scholars such as Høister (2023) emphasize that Kushan's rulers took advantage of this commercial network, which not only allowed the exchange of goods, but also for the movement of cultural practices and philosophies, especially Buddhism. The support of the Kushan Empire to Buddhist establishments and monastic orders is well documented; The influx of traders and travelers who sponsored these religious institutions contributed significantly to the location and adaptation of Buddhist teachings.
The observable cultural syncretism within the limits of the Kushan Empire is, in many ways, proof of its historical meaning. Like ELKURBONOV (2024), the dissemination of Buddhism during this period was substantially influenced by the cosmopolitan nature of Kushan's society, where various groups and religions are coexist. Buddhist missionaries, often sponsored by the Kushan elite, embarked on trips that led to the establishment of stupas and monasteries in strategic locations. This movement was fundamental to the proliferation of Buddhism, as the architectural and spiritual milestones created under the aegis of Kushan served as worship centers and centers for teaching, making religion more accessible to a variety of audiences.
The construction of stupas, such as Zurmala Stupa, exemplifies the characteristic of the architectural ingenuity of the period, reflecting the integration of Hellenistic, Indian and Local influences. Its design - a monumental structure designed to house Buddha's relics - moves the prevailing spatial and aesthetic ideals within the Empire, and resonates with the aspirations of various local communities to connect with the sacred. The purposeful placement of these stupas throughout the commercial routes is a critical factor in their role in promoting Buddhism; Since these routes were frequented by travelers and traders, they served as meeting points, facilitating not only the spread of material wealth, but also the exchange of spiritual values and beliefs.
The socio-political landscape of the Kushan Empire further increased the accessibility of Buddhism. The sponsorship of emperors like Kanishka, who is often credited with aggressive support to religion, allowed the flourishing of artistic and architectural enterprises associated with Buddhist ideology. The integration of various artistic traditions within the stupas of the Empire has provided a visual language that transcended cultural barriers, thus facilitating the understanding and acceptance of Buddhist principles among non-busty populations. This cultural diffusion was emblematic of a broader standard of interaction in Central Asia, in which the fusion of various traditions catalyzed the emergence of hybrid forms of belief and practice.
In short, the Kushan Empire not only served as a political and economic power in Central Asia, but also played a fundamental role in the formation of Buddhist practice and accessibility. The architectural characteristics of monuments such as Zurmala Stupa, along with the Empire's strategic support for religious functions, collectively illustrate as the intersection of trade, sponsorship and cultural exchange contributed to the lasting legacy of Buddhism in the region., The architectural characteristics of the Zurmala stupa reveal a sophisticated amalgamation of design elements and construction techniques that reflect not only the artistic sensibilities of the Kushan empire but also the nuanced approach of the Buddhist architectural traditions of the time. The stupa, an essential architectural form in Buddhist practice, serves as a relicar and symbolic representation of the presence of the Buddha, and Zurmala exemplifies these functions through its distinctive construction.
The structure of the Zurmala stupa is characterized by its important dome, known as Anda, which is emblematic of the first Buddhist stupas. This dome, built with a series of brick layers, shows the combination of local construction techniques and influences of Hellenistic architecture, a reflection of the geographical and cultural extension of the Kushan empire. Ulmasov (2018) articulates that the proportions of the dome are indicative of a stylistic transition that occurred during this period, in which the circular form of the stupa became a unifying symbol of the cosmos, reflecting the circular nature of Buddhist thought and the renaissance cycle.
In addition to the dome, the stupa has a prominent square platform, which serves as the basis for the structure. This staggered base is enriched with intricately carved facades, which exhibit a stylistic sophistication evoking the traditional and imbued Indian patterns of the Hellenistic artistic influences. Pidaev and Yamagishi (2020) argue that such details suggest an intentional orchestration of the visual appeal aimed at reflecting sacred narratives. Sizes represent several Buddhist motifs, including the scenes of the life of the Buddha that not only had decorative purposes, but also functioned as didactic images for lay practitioners dedicated to meditation and practice of Buddhism.
The construction of Zurmala reflects advanced engineering techniques notable for its time, including the precise brick union and the use of mortar that ensured the structural integrity of the stupa during the centuries. The application of these techniques demonstrates a sophisticated understanding of aesthetics and functionality, which adheres to the architectural principles that characterized the constructions of the Kushan era. In addition, the expansive dimensions of the stupa, which according to the reports measure more than 43 meters high, underline the ambition of Kushan's architectural efforts, which serves as a physical manifestation of the religious and cultural aspirations of the empire.
An essential aspect of Zurmala's stupa is its circumambulatory path, or Pradakshina, which allows a traditional practice among Buddhists to walk around the stupa in a schedule as a form of worship. This careful consideration of religious functionality emphasizes how the architectural design of the stupa facilitates devotional practices. The alignment and scale of the circumambulatory route were probably designed to accommodate a large number of devotees, indicating a deliberate effort to improve the accessibility of the stupa to the broader Buddhist community.
The architectural characteristics of the Zurmala stupa not only serve as a significant example of the construction of Kushan, but also reflect the combination of various cultural influences that characterized the empire. The integration of local and Hellenistic artistic elements speaks of the syncretism of the time, which actively shaped Buddhist architecture and accessibility. Consequently, the stupa is a testimony of the historical context of the Kushan Empire, in which the notions of religious identity and community participation through architecture were indelibly intertwined with the cultural fabric of ancient India., Zurmala's stupa serves as a primary example of religious architecture characteristic of Buddhist practices during the Kushan empire, echoing the multidimensional nature of stupas as vital centers of spiritual activity. Its main religious functions are deeply intertwined with the broader contexts of ritual, offerings and pilgrimage, which reflects the expressions evolving from Buddhist devotion during this period.
The stupas, including Zurmala, were intricately designed not only as commemorative structures but as dynamic areas for the practice of Buddhism. They served as repositories for sacred relics, which is believed to contain the remains or possessions of the Buddha and other venerated figures. This function underlies its importance as focal points for veneration. The placement of these relics within the stupa dome symbolically connects the physical with the spiritual, which allows professionals a tangible medium to commit to their beliefs. The architectural characteristics of the Zurmala stupa, particularly its proportions and ornate decorations, improve their role as a venerated space where the faithful could channel worship and research.
The rituals associated with the stupa often included circumvalation, or "Kora", which embodies the act of moving in the direction of the clock needles around the stupa when reciting mantras or prayers. This practice reinforces a feeling of devotion and helps to promote a deeper connection with the ideals incorporated by the relics housed inside. The architectural design of the Zurmala stupa, with its expansive circumvising path and elevated platform, facilitates this ritual, welcoming both the local population and the pilgrims of the long -range regions. Through its careful placement and greatness, the stretch operates as an invitation to spiritual commitment, transcending geographical and cultural limits.
In his study on religious buildings and his functions in the cities of Kushan, Jakhonov (2022) emphasizes the role of stupas as centers for community worship and social activity. Zurmala exemplifies this dimension when serving not only as a site for individual piety but also as a meeting place for larger religious assemblies. Festivals and ceremonies, often synchronized with agricultural cycles or seasonal changes, attracted crowds to the stupa, facilitating a sense of community among various groups, including merchants, pilgrims and local inhabitants. This dimension of the stupa function highlights its integral role in the spread of Buddhist values and practices throughout the region.
In addition, Zurmala's stupa was at the intersection of cultural exchange facilitated by the extensive commercial networks of the Kushan empire. These routes not only encouraged the movement of goods, but also the cross pollination of religious ideas and practices. The pilgrimage routes that lead to the stupa became life lines for the dissemination of Buddhist teachings, as travelers spread the narrative of the Buddha and the practices associated with their relics. The importance of Zurmala as a pilgrimage site extends beyond its immediate geographical context, contributing to the broader accessibility of Buddhism during the Kushan period.
In summary, the religious functions of Zurmala's stupa are multiple, which cover veneration practices, community commitment and cultural exchange. These aspects, supported by their architectural characteristics and their strategic importance within the Kushan Empire, underline the role of stupa as an indispensable element in the religious panorama of ancient Buddhism, allowing broader access to its teachings and practices., The Buddhist Zurmala Stupa has a substantial cultural meaning within the social fabric of the Kushan Empire, reflecting a mixture of religious practice and local identity through its monumental architecture and ritualistic functions. Like a central piece of the religious landscape, Zurmala not only served as a sacred locus for Buddhist cult, but also as a symbolic representation of the region's commitment to the dissemination of Buddhist teachings. The stupid, with its refined architectural elements - including the hemispheric summit, Harmika and the elaborate shames - compared to similar structures found along the silk road, thus contributing to and reinforcing a shared religious and cultural heritage throughout the vast expansion influenced by the Kushan Empire. Shahi (2019) points out that the architectural characteristics of stupas throughout the commercial routes acted as headlights of Buddhist ideology, promoting not only local involvement, but also promoting interaction between various populations that cross these networks.
In regional contexts, the zurmala can be juxtaposed to crucial Buddhist monuments, such as those found in the ancient Termez, as detailed by Abdullaev (2013). Although Termez Stupas can display distinct characteristics and styles due to local adaptations, the comprehensive goal as spaces for assembly and communal worship remains consistent. Both places indicate a transformative phase in which Buddhism has gone from a predominantly monastic tradition to someone involved with lay communities, increasing their accessibility and prominence in everyday life. Zurmala Stupa, as a milestone of spiritual meaning, helped solidify Buddhist identity into a different imperial scenario, serving as an example of the integration of religious and cultural narratives.
In addition, the role of Zurmala extends beyond mere architectural feats; It exemplifies the broadest cultural mandate of the Kushan Empire in promoting religious tolerance and pluralism. The long -lasting presence of the stuppe and the following pilgrimage activities promoted an environment in which local customs merged with Buddhist practices, reinforcing the status of the social and a social and cultural link. This interaction is particularly insightful in attracting parallels to the fundamental narratives postulated by Shahi (2019) on symbiotic relationships formed in various shrines along the Silk Route, which also served as crossroads of cultural exchange.
By examining the impact of Zurmala Stupa on its immediate environment, it is evident that its cultural meaning derived from its multifaceted role as a spiritual repository and a dynamic place of community involvement. The integration of local artistic expressions into the Design of Stupa - the incorporation of regional motives and handicrafts - illustrates how the scope of the Kushan Empire did not obliterate local identities, but harmonized with them, allowing a distinct synthesis of Buddhist and indigenous cultural elements. Such interactions exemplify the complexities of cultural identity within the Empire, with Zurmala acting as a crucial channel for religious dissemination, promoting an enriched cultural landscape that contributed not only to the persistence of Buddhist practices, but also to the emergence of a communal ethos rooted in shared spirituality., Zurmala Stupa, located in modern Uzbekistan, is a monumental will of the evolutionary dynamic of Buddhism in the context of the Kushan Empire. Its meaning extends beyond simple architectural ingenuity; It offers a deep overview of the mechanisms of religious accessibility and community integration at a pivotal era for Buddhist diffusion.
Located strategically along commercial roads, Zurmala Stupa served not only a religious building but also as a community focal point, thus improving its role in the promotion of Buddhism among the wider population. Iwamoto (2019) stresses that stupas placement like Zurmala has facilitated greater interaction between Buddhist monks and local communities, effectively transforming Stupa into a center for educational efforts. This accessibility was crucial in the demystification of Buddhist doctrines, allowing laymen to engage with religion at a deeper level, which would have been less feasible in more isolated or inaccessible places.
The architectural characteristics of Zurmala Stupa also underline its role of common gathering space. The vast circumstant roads and the surrounding structures indicate that the stupa was designed not only for solitary meditation but also for collective participation in religious rites. These characteristics have encouraged gatherings and community festivals, orchestrating a mixture of spiritual and social interactions that have favored a feeling of belonging among various populations. Alimardonova (2020) notes that such rallies have contributed to breaking the obstacles to the entry into the Buddhist faith, allowing individuals of various horizons to participate in the municipal rituals and the educational sessions which were vital for the strengthening and dissemination of Buddhist beliefs.
In addition, the educational functions of Zurmala Stupa played a central role in increasing the accessibility of Buddhism. It was often used as a place of recitation of writing and lessons, creating a socio-religious atmosphere which favored the sharing of knowledge. This was particularly significant during the Kushan Empire, which was characterized by a syncretic approach to spirituality and philosophy. The presence of stupa and associated activities would have attracted not only followers of Buddhism, but also stakeholders of other religious circles, promoting an intercultural dialogue which improved the visibility of Buddhism as an inclusive faith.
In addition to its function in the community building, Zurmala Stupa has contributed to the economic viability of the site through tourism. Alimardonova (2020) notes that Buddhist stupas have often become pilgrimage sites, attracting visitors and academics, thus transforming them into cultural centers that favored local savings. The influx of pilgrims and tourists has not only provided a livelihood to local residents, but also assured that the Buddhist lessons and practices have remained dynamic and accessible. Zurmala's stupa illustrated the intertwining of spiritual, educational and economic dimensions, presenting a model of religious accessibility which facilitated the spread of Buddhism throughout the region.
In the end, the cultural and historical meaning of Zurmala Stupa in the context of the Kushan Empire lies in its multifaceted contributions to the meeting more accessible to Buddhism to the general population. Its strategic location, its architectural ingenuity and its functions focused on the community collectively underline its role as a pivot site for spiritual commitment, learning and intercultural connections. Through these attributes, Zurmala's stupa not only symbolizes the architectural achievements of the Kushan Empire, but also reflects the broader aspirations of Buddhism while it was trying to reach a wider audience for a transformative period of its history., The historical trajectory of the Zurmala stupa, once a fundamental site within the expansive reach of the Kushan empire, reflects the largest patterns of Buddhist decline in northern botria. The significant sociopolitical changes initiated during the second half of the first millennium CE precipitated a marked decrease in the prominence of the Buddhist sites in the region, including the staging of Zurmala. As Iwamoto (2019) points out, the decrease in Buddhism in northern Botria cannot be attributed to a singular causal factor, but to a confluence of internal and external pressures that harass these sacred landscapes.
Central to understand the decline is the change in political structures and the eventual rise of Islamic states. The Kushan Empire, after facilitating the spread of Buddhism through its initial sponsorship, witnessed a gradual erosion of its influence as the regional dynamics changed. The emergence of the Sasania empire and the later Islamic conquerors deeply affected the Buddhist institutions and their associated sites. As the local rulers began to favor Islamic orthodoxy and sponsorship, Buddhist complexes, including Zurmala stupa, passed from the religious and social gathering centers to neglected relics of a faded past. The evidence suggests that as the socio -political identity of the region evolved, so did communal investments in Buddhist structures, which led to their physical deterioration and relative obsolescence within the cultural narrative.
Iwamoto's research also sheds light on the economic mechanisms that also contributed to this decrease. The sustainability of Buddhist sites, traditionally dependent on real sponsorship and the support of the local community, hesitated as economic networks changed. The withdrawal of government and popular support for Buddhist practices decreased the resources available for maintenance, reconstruction and ritual performance in monasteries and stupas. This evidence, particularly with respect to the articulated decrease in the exploration of Iwamoto of the Buddhist sites in northern Bactria, reveals a worrying trend: as the communities were realized under Islamic governance, many previously vibrant Buddhist institutions, including the stupid of Zurmala, languished in discount or were repaired for the new religious contexts.
Architecturally, the design of the Zurmala stupa reflected its historical importance; However, such artistic and structural achievements were eclipsed by the decrease in religious sponsorship. Without the continuous investment necessary to maintain its physical structure and ceremonial functions, the tangible presence of the stupa collapsed. The stupa architecture, characterized by different characteristics that include a hemispheric dome and a Harmika, became a focal point less for meetings and community veneration. It became a silent witness of the transformation of the cultural landscape, embodying both the glory of the past of Buddhism and its descent following the changing ideologies.
By understanding the relevance of the Zurmala stupa today, the processes of its decline are instructive importance. The site serves not only as an archaeological artifact but also as a moving reminder of the fragility of religious traditions against socio -political agitation. Recent efforts for preservation and archaeological study highlight a renewed interest that is contrary to the historical trajectory of negligence. When using evidence of Iwamoto (2019) and related erudition, the decline of the Zurmala stapa can be seen not simply as an end point but as part of a lasting conversation with respect to the resistance of cultural and religious heritage in the midst of the change pressures., Recent archaeological efforts on the site of the Buddhist Stupus Zurmala have produced significant insights on its historical and cultural context, in particular in the framework of the Kushan Empire. The excavations conducted by Mishra (2019) provided a complete evaluation of the structural composition and the stylistic elements of the stupa, revealing a remarkable mixture of local and Hellenistic architectural influences. The results indicate that the design of the stupa incorporates the traditional Indian architectural motifs together with the Greek-Buddhist elements, a synthesis that reflects the cultural exchanges that characterized the era of Kushan. This architectural hybidity not only underlines the cosmopolitan nature of the period, but also suggests that the Zurmala served by locus vital for intercultural interaction, promoting the spread and accessibility of Buddhist practices in the midst of a diversified population.
The stratigraphic analyzes and material culture recovered from the site have further clarified the religious functions of the stupa. Esparraguera et al. (2015) show that various votive offers, including inscriptions, pearls and ceramics, were discovered in the immediate vicinity of the stupa, thus suggesting a vibrant ritual life focused on this monument. These materials contribute to a greater understanding of devotional practices that may have occurred in Zurmala, illustrating how the structure not only worked as a commemorative monument, but also as an active site of cult and collection of the community. In particular, the presence of inscriptions in multiple languages indicates the role of the stupa as a spiritual lighthouse that transcended the linguistic divides, thus making the Buddhist teachings more accessible to a wider audience.
In addition, the archaeological results have pushed scholars to re -evaluate the socio -economic dynamics of the region surrounding the Zurmala. The surrounding settlement models, identified in the excavated artifacts, indicate an interdependence between the stupa and the local communities, suggesting that the structure served not only as a religious center but also as an integral element of local trade and social organization. Mishra (2019) analysis reveals that the influx of pilgrims and traders contributed to the lively economy near the stupa, facilitating the exchange of goods and ideas that were fundamental in consolidating the stature of Buddhism as a leading religion during the Kushan Empire.
The cumulative tests extracted from these archaeological investigations provide convincing interpretations of the faceted role of the stupa in ancient society. Zurmala is not simply a relic of religious architecture but as a dynamic site that has favored cultural dialogue and economic interactivity. The integration of artistic influences and different religious practices in this position is emblematic of the complexity of the socio-political landscape of the Kushan Empire, in which art, religion and trade united to model the trajectory of Buddhism. These analyzes highlight the importance of the archaeological work in progress in the illumination of historical narratives that emphasize the interconnectivity of different cultural experiences in ancient southern Asia, in particular as manifested in the grandeur and meaning of structures such as the Zurmala stupa., The analysis of the Zurmala Buddhist stupa has illuminated its multifaceted meaning within the architectural, religious and cultural frameworks of the Kushan empire. This exam underlines the stupa not only as a structural entity, but as a vital instrument in the propagation and accessibility of Buddhism in various populations in ancient Central Asia. The architectural characteristics of the stupa, characterized by its monumental dome and its surrounding roads, serve as a visual representation of Buddhist cosmology and reinforce its central religious principles. The incorporation of intricate sizes and reliefs in the design of the stupa further illustrates the symbiotic relationship between artistic expression and spiritual practice during this period (Abdullaev, 2020).
The religious functions of the zurmala stupa extend beyond that of a mere sanctuary of relic. As a site for communal meetings, it facilitated the dissemination of teachings and Buddhist rituals. The presence of nearby monastic communities assured that the stupa served as a pilgrimage site and a meditation and instruction center. Such religious functions highlight their role as a focal point for the integration of Buddhist doctrine in the daily life of professionals, reinforcing social cohesion between various ethnic and cultural groups within the empire (Jakhonov, 2023). In this sense, the stupa acted as a catalyst for the spread of Buddhism, contributing significantly to its establishment as a prominent faith in the region.
In addition, the zurmala stupa exemplifies the significant change in the accessibility of Buddhism under the Kushan empire. Kushan's rulers, particularly during Kanishka's reign, were fundamental to promote Buddhism as a religion sponsored by the State, facilitating the construction of stupas and monasteries. This government support decreased barriers to access, allowing a broader spectrum of society to get involved with Buddhist practices. Consequently, the stupa not only democratized religious access, but also promoted the evolution of an inclusive Buddhist community in the territories of the empire (Abdullaev, 2020).
The cultural ramifications of the Zurmala stupa resonate through its ability to amalgamate several artistic traditions, indicative of the rich influences of the Kushan empire, including Hellenistic aesthetics, Persian and India. The distinctive architectural style of the stupa reflects a continuous dialogue between these diverse cultures and their interpretation of Buddhist ideals. The legacy of such interactions can be observed in the subsequent development of Buddhist architectural forms throughout Central Asia, evidencing the lasting impact of the stupa beyond its immediate geographical context (Jakhonov, 2023).
In summary, the Zurmala Buddhist stupa stands as a monumental testimony of the cultural and historical fabric of the Kushan empire. Through its architectural innovations, religious importance and improvement in the accessibility of Buddhism, it played a fundamental role in the configuration of the religious landscape of the region. The lasting legacy of the stupa not only encapsulates the innovations of its time, but also serves as a crucial marker in the narration of Buddhism, which illustrates its ability to adapt and prosper in various cultural environments, thus enriching the spiritual heritage of Central Asia. This importance remains highlighted in contemporary discourse on the intersection of architecture, religion and cultural exchange during the historical interaction of empires.
Citations:
Jakhonov, Temurkhan. SOME ISSUES OF RELIGIOUS BUILDINGS IN KUSHAN CITIES. Art and Design: Social Science 3.01 (2023): 7-9. https://social-science-analysis.uz/index.php/ssa/article/view/35
Jakhonov, Temurkhan. RELIGIOUS BUILDINGS OF NORTHERN BACTRIA IN KUSHAN PERIOD. ISJ Theoretical & Applied Science, 04 (108) (2022): 143-145. https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Temurkhan-Jakhonov/publication/360326452_RELIGIOUS_BUILDINGS_OF_NORTHERN_BACTRIA_IN_KUSHAN_PERIOD/links/62bbbd3893242c74cad60ec4/RELIGIOUS-BUILDINGS-OF-NORTHERN-BACTRIA-IN-KUSHAN-PERIOD.pdf
Iwamoto, Atsushi. A study on the prosperity and decline of Buddhist sites in Northern Bactria: Kara Tepe and Zurmala. The Rissho international journal of academic research in culture and society 2 (2019): 151-178. https://rissho.repo.nii.ac.jp/record/12/files/06_Iwamoto_P151-178.pdf
Stavisky, B. J. Buddhist monuments of central Asia and the Sasanians. Bulletin of the Asia Institute 4 (1990): 167-170. https://www.jstor.org/stable/24048358
Abdullaev, Kazim. The Buddhist culture of Ancient Termez in old and recent finds. Parthica: incontri di culture nel mondo antico: 15, 2013 (2013): 157-188. https://www.torrossa.com/gs/resourceProxy?an=2946897&publisher=F34885
Ulmasov, Akmal. Reconstruction of the Zurmala Buddhist Stupa in Termez, Uzbekistan. Int J Innov Sci Eng Tachnol (I-JISET) 5.5 (2018): 93-95. https://ijiset.com/vol5/v5s5/IJISET_V5_I05_13.pdf
Pidaev, Shakirdjan R., and Nobuo Yamagishi. On the History of Buddhist Structures in Tarmita-Termez. The Journal of Oriental Studies 30 (2020): 42-66. https://www.totetu.org/assets/media/paper/j030_42.pdf
Shahi, D. K. A spatial and temporal analysis of Buddhist shrines along the silk route. International Journal of Social Science and Economic Research 4 (2019): 2708-2716. http://ijsser.org/files_2019/ijsser_04__197.pdf
Eshkurbonov, F. N. ON THE SPREAD OF BUDDHISM IN CENTRAL ASIA. International Scientific and Current Research Conferences. 2024. https://www.orientalpublication.com/index.php/iscrc/article/view/1754
Anaev, Jaloliddin. History and culture of the Buddhist monuments of Bactria-Tokharistan. International Journal of Science and Research 9 (2020): 1378-1381. https://www.academia.edu/download/85765798/History-And-Culture-Of-The-Buddhist-Monuments-Of-Bactria-tokharistan.pdf
Shahi, D. K. On the Footsteps of a Buddhist Monk: Interpretation and Reinterpretation of the Cultural Landscape of Tarmita (Termez). https://indusedu.org/pdfs/IJREISS/IJREISS_3196_45251.pdf
Pugachenkova, Galina A. The Buddhist Monuments of Airtam. Silk Road art and archaeology 2 (1991): 23-41.
Shahi, D. K. Buddhist Shrines in the Oasis Cities of Central Asia: Theories and Models of Diffusion of Religion. (2019). https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Dharmendra-Shahi/publication/344449091_Buddhist_Shrines_in_the_Oasis_Cities_of_Central_Asia_Theories_and_Models_of_Diffusion_of_Religion/links/5f76c69ca6fdcc0086502517/Buddhist-Shrines-in-the-Oasis-Cities-of-Central-Asia-Theories-and-Models-of-Diffusion-of-Religion.pdf
Alimardonova, Zebuniso. The Most Important Buddhist Cultural Monuments in Tourism. Am. J. Appl. Sci 2 (2020): 76-85. https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Abdugaffor-Nazarov/publication/379900420_The_USA_Journals/links/662117f339e7641c0bd65fa5/The-USA-Journals.pdf#page=72
Lafasov, Urak Pazilovich. Common Cultural Roots in Uzbeks and Ayns. (2023). https://komparativistika.uz/storage/article_files/files/1038-Article%20Text-2072-1-10-20231106.pdf
Abdullaev, Kazim. 98:“Buddhist Terracotta Plastic Art in Northern Bactria.”. Silk Road Art and Archaeology 5 (1997): 161-177.
Mishra, Ranjana. Buddhist Milieu in Termez: Links in Architecture and Archaeology. Trans-Himalayan Buddhism. Routledge, 2019. 37-54. https://www.taylorfrancis.com/chapters/edit/10.4324/9781003004523-3/buddhist-milieu-termez-links-architecture-archaeology-ranjana-mishra
Esparraguera, Josep M. Gurt, et al. The Buddhist occupation of Tchingiz Tepe (Termez, Uzbekistan) in the Kushan period through the ceramic contexts. Archaeological Research in Asia 3 (2015): 19-33. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2352226715000173
Li, Xiao, and Zhitang Liao. A comparative study of layouts of Buddhist monasteries in Gandhāra area and Tarim basin. Major Archaeological Discoveries Along the Chinese Silk Road. Singapore: Springer Nature Singapore, 2023. 87-109. https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-981-99-0659-8_7
Høisæter, Tomas Larson. Trade, Buddhism, and the Kushan connection: exchange across the Pamir Knot and the making of the Silk Roads, 2nd century BCE to 5th century CE. Oxford Research Encyclopedia of Asian History. 2023. https://oxfordre.com/asianhistory/display/10.1093/acrefore/9780190277727.001.0001/acrefore-9780190277727-e-598
