King Ashoka Recorded It – Master Xuanzang Confirmed It

In 1174 BE (631 CE), the Chinese monk Xuanzang (Hsüan-tsang) undertook his famous pilgrimage to India in search of sacred Buddhist sites and authentic scriptures. As he traveled from Sāvatthī toward Kapilavastu, he recorded encountering an ancient Buddhist site associated with Kāṇakamuni Buddha (พระโกนาคมนะ), one of the past Buddhas.

Xuanzang wrote:

“From the birthplace of Buddha Kakusandha, going northeast for 30 li, one reaches another great ancient city—the birthplace of Buddha Kanakamuni. In front of it is a stone pillar, over 20 chhieh high, with a carved lion on top. An inscription beside it records the deeds of that Buddha. King Ashoka erected it.”
(Tang Xiyuji, vol. 2, p. 238; translated by Siu Sūlun)

Archaeological Discovery:

In 1893 CE (2436 BE), a Nepalese archaeologist rediscovered the remains of Ashoka’s pillar at a site called Niglisagar (or Niglihawa), located about 30 km northwest of Lumbinī, the birthplace of the historical Buddha, in present-day Nepal.

• One fragment was the base of the pillar.

• Another fragment, later found lying beside a pond, was the inscribed shaft.

• The inscription was copied and sent to the Asiatic Society, where scholars successfully translated the Brāhmī script.

The Inscription (transliteration in modern Devanagari):

𑀤𑁂𑀯𑀸𑀦𑀁𑀧𑀺𑀬𑁂𑀦 𑀧𑀺𑀬𑀤𑀲𑀺𑀦 𑀮𑀸𑀚𑀺𑀦 𑀘𑁄𑀤𑀲𑀯𑀲𑀸 𑀪𑀺𑀲𑀺𑀢𑁂𑀦  
𑀩𑀼𑀥𑀲 𑀓𑁄𑀦𑀸𑀓𑀫𑀦𑀲 𑀣𑀼𑀩𑁂𑀤𑀼𑀢𑀺𑀬𑀁 𑀯𑀠𑀺𑀢𑁂  
𑀯𑀺𑀲𑀢𑀺𑀯 𑀲𑀸𑀪𑀺𑀲𑀺𑀢𑁂𑀦𑀘 𑀅𑀢𑀦 𑀅𑀕𑀸𑀘 𑀫𑀳𑀻𑀬𑀺𑀢𑁂  
𑀲𑀺𑀮𑀣𑀩𑁂𑀘 𑀉𑀲𑀧𑀧𑀺𑀢𑁂

Translation:

“In the 14th year of the reign of King Piyadasī, Beloved of the Gods, he came and worshipped here and had a stupa of the Buddha Kanakamuni constructed. In the 20th year of his reign, he visited again and caused this stone pillar to be erected.”

Key Significance:

• Two visits by King Ashoka are recorded:

  1. 14th regnal year – constructed the stupa.

  2. 20th regnal year – returned and erected the stone pillar.

• Ashoka, known for spreading Buddhism across the Indian subcontinent, commissioned these acts to honor past Buddhas as part of his broader religious devotion and political message of Dharma.

• The inscription explicitly connects King Ashoka with Buddha Kanakamuni, confirming Xuanzang’s 7th-century report.

The Site – Niglihawa (Niglisagar):

• Located in present-day Nepal, near the border with India.

• Roughly 30 kilometers northwest of Lumbinī, following Xuanzang’s route.

• The name Niglisagar likely derives from “Nigali”, the name of the ancient Nigali people or village, and “sāgara”, meaning pond.

Today, the site features:

• A stupa mound

• The remains of the Ashokan pillar

• Ongoing pilgrimage activity and scholarly attention

Conclusion:

This discovery is archaeologically invaluable, as it:

1. Corroborates ancient travel records—specifically Xuanzang’s travelogue.

2. Demonstrates Ashoka’s devotion not only to Śākyamuni Buddha, but also to past Buddhas like Kanakamuni.

3. Offers a rare inscription in early Brāhmī, with royal and religious context tied to actual geographical sites we can still visit today.

“Nearly 2,300 years later, a stone pillar and a foreign pilgrim’s journal meet again to confirm the legacy of a great emperor and a timeless Dharma.”

The Exquisite Buddha Image by Venerable Yashadinna

 we revisit the Mathura Museum, a site that preserves some of India’s most elegant examples of early Buddhist art.

In 1862 CE (2405 BE), Alexander Cunningham, one of the founding figures of Indian archaeology, conducted excavations at Jamalpur Mound, near Mathurā. There, he unearthed 35 Buddha images, both intact and fragmented, as well as sculpted red sandstone slabs believed to be parts of monasteries (vihāras) and monastic halls (saṅghārāmas).

These artifacts were eventually curated and displayed when the Mathura Museum was established. Among them, one Buddha image stands out for its exceptional craftsmanship.

Artistic Features:

• The statue has a circular halo (prabhāmaṇḍala).

• The face is full and serene, with an oval-shaped facial structure—hallmarks of Gupta art, although the statue was discovered in Mathurā.

• Unlike typical Mathurā-style art, this piece reflects the stylistic influence of Sarnath, a major artistic and religious center during the Gupta period.

Without the inscription at its base, we would never have known who created this masterpiece.

The Inscription:

There are two lines, written in a mix of Sanskrit and Prakrit, using Brāhmī script:

Line 1:
Deyadharmo yaṁ Śākya-bhikṣo Yaśadinnasya yad atra pu-
Line 2:
ṇyaṁ tad bhavatu mātāpitaro ācāryopadhyāyānāṁ ca sarva-sattvānuttara-jñāna-vāptaye

Translation:

"This meritorious offering (deyadharma) belongs to the Śākya monk named Yashadinna. Whatever merit arises from this offering, may it be dedicated to my mother and father, to my teachers and preceptors, and to all sentient beings for the attainment of unsurpassed wisdom (anuttara-jñāna)."

Interpretation:

• The donor and creator of this sacred Buddha image is Venerable Yashadinna (Sanskrit: यशदिन्न, Pāli: Yasadinna), a monk of the Śākya lineage.

• His dedication of merit aligns with the Mahāyāna spirit—offering not only for his family and teachers but also for all living beings, with the wish for them to attain unexcelled enlightenment.

• The wording follows the traditional format found in both Pāli and Sanskrit, where “mother and father” (mātāpitaro) always places the mother first, showing reverence and cultural norm (not a typographical error).

Historical Context:

• While the specific sect to which Yashadinna belonged is not mentioned, inscriptions found throughout Mathurā from the same era refer to several Buddhist schools, including:

  1. Dharmaguptaka

  2. Mahīśāsaka

  3. Sarvāstivāda

  4. Caitika (Jetiyavāda)

• Cunningham dated the statue to around 900 BE (approximately 43 CE).
  As of 2568 BE (2025 CE), this means the statue is now over 1,500 years old.

Final Reflection:

The image still shines with dignity and grace, a testament to the enduring devotion of its creator. Though Venerable Yashadinna may be long gone, his act of faith, carved into stone, lives on across centuries.

“Though the body perishes, the merit and artistry endure. With reverence, we bow to the venerable teacher.”

Avijjā to Nirodha: Saṅkhāra and Khandha

"Recently heard again: Look with the eyes your parents gave you at birth. 'Oh, five fingers' - isn't that the answer given? Five fingers, right? As long as these fingers exist, will the wrong view of beings as people and devas be eliminated? It's important to dissolve this concept of fingers. As long as fingers exist, people exist, and if people exist, then devas and brahmas exist - all 31 planes exist. If fingers don't exist, people don't exist either.

When looking with the eyes given by parents, we see five fingers. But when looking through the lens of knowledge (vijjā), do we see fingers or just visible form-element? We only see visible form-element.

Let's examine again through the body-door. Don't we call them thumb, index finger, middle finger, ring finger, and little finger? Don't we take them as existing?

Now touch with the hand of wisdom given by the Buddha. Do you find fingers or just hardness? When touching the thumb, do you find a thumb or hardness? For each finger - do you find fingers or just hardness?

Can you still find any fingers? If you can't find fingers, can you find a body? If you can't find a body, can you find a person? Why not? Because they don't exist. This is knowledge (vijjā). Isn't this worth contemplating?

Seeing through body parts is ignorance (avijjā). When examining through the body-door, we only find hardness. When looking through the lens of knowledge, we only see visible form. Isn't this worth studying? Think carefully.

If you can't find the 32 parts of the body, can you find a person? If you can't find a person, can you find devas or brahmas? Why not? (Because they don't exist, Venerable Sir). What testifies completely to the non-existence of beings, devas, and brahmas? (Hardness testifies, Venerable Sir). Doesn't the nature of hardness, the element of hardness, the ultimate hardness bear witness?

Don't we get body-consciousness, a mental phenomenon, when knowing hardness? Isn't hardness a physical phenomenon? These are the two things - mind and matter. Therefore, search anywhere in matter - can you find beings? Search anywhere in mind - can you find beings? Why not find them? Isn't it taught as 'void of mind and matter'?

The 32 parts of the body exist conventionally. Beings, devas, and brahmas exist conventionally. Isn't this worth examining? Both the conventional and ultimate exist as mind and matter. How does mind and matter exist? Isn't it worth investigating? They exist as impermanent, as suffering, as non-self."

"Are anicca, dukkha, and anatta good or bad qualities? Day after day, are we living with happiness or suffering? When we truly understand this suffering, do we abandon it or not? Can we abandon it without understanding it? We can only abandon what we understand.

For one who has aggregates, can they escape aging, sickness, and death? What truth is this? (It's the Truth of Suffering, Venerable Sir). It's truly suffering. We live with suffering day after day. When we truly understand this as suffering, do we still want to obtain these kinds of aggregates again? Understanding leads to not wanting it. When we understand, don't we abandon it?

Before, didn't we wrongly perceive things as humans, devas, and brahmas? Weren't we wrong in our perception, understanding, and views? These are the three types of perversion (vipallāsa). Isn't this worth examining? This is why craving (taṇhā) and clinging (upādāna) arise. Isn't this worth investigating? Study this.

Looking at these aggregates, we see suffering. But when we wrongly apprehend this suffering, don't we mistakenly see it as human happiness, deva happiness, brahma happiness? Because of this wrong understanding, we performed meritorious formations (puññābhisaṅkhāra) and imperturbable formations (āneñjābhisaṅkhāra). Wanting human aggregates and deva aggregates, didn't we perform acts of giving (dāna)? Didn't we observe moral precepts (sīla)?

Think about it. Isn't this what's taught as meritorious formations? Due to these wholesome deeds of giving and morality, we obtain human existence and deva existence. As humans, can we escape aging, sickness, and death? As devas, can we escape aging, sickness, and death? No, we cannot. What truth is this? (It's the Truth of Suffering, Venerable Sir)."

"Practicing the 40 meditation subjects is āneñjābhisaṅkhāra (imperturbable formations). Isn't it taught that with concentration from these practices, one can even know others' thoughts? With further development, one can perform supernatural feats. When consciousness ceases in this way, one obtains brahma aggregates. But can brahmas escape aging, sickness and death? What truth is this? (It's the Truth of Suffering, Venerable Sir).

Apuññābhisaṅkhāra (demeritorious formations) leads to the four woeful states. Are these formations satisfactory or not? Formations mean conditioning - conditioning to obtain human aggregates, deva aggregates, brahma aggregates. Human and deva aggregates come from puññābhisaṅkhāra, brahma aggregates from āneñjābhisaṅkhāra, and the four woeful realms' aggregates from apuññābhisaṅkhāra - isn't this what's taught?

Isn't it worth examining these formations? Do they arise by themselves or through causes and conditions? Looking backward, don't we find ignorance (avijjā)? Don't we wrongly apprehend the five aggregates as beings and persons?

Can one who has aggregates escape aging, sickness and death? What truth is this? (It's the Truth of Suffering, Venerable Sir). Don't we wrongly perceive this suffering as human happiness, deva happiness, brahma happiness? Isn't this called avijjā? Because of this avijjā, formations arise.

If avijjā ceases, will formations still come? Think about it. Isn't avijjā taught as the cycle of defilements? When there's avijjā, aren't there also craving and clinging? These three - avijjā, taṇhā, upādāna - can be summarized as avijjā. Isn't this worth studying?

When we know them as aggregates, isn't our attention correct? Knowing the five aggregates as impermanent, as suffering, as non-self - isn't this right attention? When we know the five aggregates, doesn't wrong view fall away? Doesn't doubt cease?

When we know impermanence, does craving still come? Does clinging still come? Does kamma still come? Don't the three cycles break? When there's dissolution, doesn't the story of aggregates end? Isn't this taught as the Truth of Cessation (nirodha-sacca)? This must be examined carefully. These are the essential points..."

This teaching emphasizes how proper understanding of suffering leads to dispassion and the desire to abandon saṃsāric existence, rather than performing actions that lead to continued rebirth in various realms.

Develop mindfulness of breathing

“ānāpānassatiṃ, rāhula, bhāvanaṃ bhāvehi. ānāpānassati hi te, rāhula, bhāvitā bahulīkatā mahapphalā hoti mahānisaṃsā. kathaṃ bhāvitā ca, rāhula, ānāpānassati, kathaṃ bahulīkatā mahapphalā hoti mahānisaṃsā ? idha, rāhula,..

Pāli Inscription from Nagarjunakonda

Nagarjunakonda

, located in Palnadu District, Andhra Pradesh, India, was once a vast and thriving Buddhist center. Sprawling across a valley, the site originally held over 23 ancient monuments, including monasteries, stupas, and temples.

However, in 1955 CE (2498 BE), the construction of the Nagarjunasagar Dam led to large-scale flooding of the valley. Only a few of the key archaeological structures could be salvaged and relocated; the rest are now submerged beneath the reservoir—a significant loss for Buddhist archaeology and world heritage.

A Rare Pāli Inscription

Among the structures that were documented, one notable discovery is a Pāli inscription, inscribed on a stupa railing post. This is remarkable because Pāli inscriptions in India are extremely rare; most Buddhist inscriptions from the subcontinent are in Prakrit or Sanskrit.

The Inscription:

Written in Brāhmī script, the Pāli lines read:

Namo bhagavato Agapolasa rañño Gotamī putasa Sirivijayasatakarṇisa saṁ 6 ghipa 4 diva Vesa 4 khapunas

Translation:

"Homage to the Blessed One. In the 6th year, on the 4th night of the summer season, in the month of Vesākha... (this is) under the reign of King Sirivijaya Sātakarṇi, son of Gotamī."

Historical Significance:

This inscription provides a rare Pāli-language record of Buddhist devotion and royal patronage in southern India.

It clearly states the name of the king, his royal lineage, and the exact time of the donation or construction:

King Sirivijaya Sātakarṇi, son of Queen Gotamī, of the Sātavāhana dynasty

His reign is dated to approximately 600 BE (57 BCE)

Noteworthy Features:

Clarity of Dating

Inscriptions from the Kuṣāṇa and Sātavāhana periods often precisely mention dates, months, and regnal years—a practice that greatly aids modern historians and archaeologists in reconstructing ancient timelines.

Religious and Political Connection

This inscription shows that Buddhism was actively supported by Sātavāhana kings, and that they commissioned Buddhist monuments such as stupas at important pilgrimage centers like Nagarjunakonda.

Use of Pāli

The usage of Pāli—rather than Sanskrit or Prakrit—suggests that Theravāda or early Buddhist traditions may have had influence in the region, at least during certain periods.

Reflection:

Despite its brevity, this single inscription carries enormous meaning. It connects us to a specific king, a specific moment in time, and a specific act of devotion—the enshrinement of a Buddhist stupa under royal patronage. It is also a precious example of Pāli epigraphy, surviving in a region where such finds are exceedingly rare.

"Even a few carved lines on ancient stone can open a gateway to centuries of devotion, history, and cultural exchange."

Formation of Eye Aggregates

Five aggregates manifest in the body.

The Work of Venerable Dharmanandi – A Masterpiece That Journeyed Far

Today, let us once again visit the ancient city of Mathurā, India, to admire the exquisite Buddhist art that flourished here.

In 1862 CE (2405 BE), the renowned archaeologist Alexander Cunningham excavated a site known as Katra Mound, located near Mathurā. Among the many valuable artifacts discovered was a particularly beautiful seated Buddha image in the Abhaya Mudrā (gesture of fearlessness).

This statue is a clear example of pure Mathurān artistry, distinct from the Gupta-style Buddha images such as those created by Venerable Yasathinna. The stone material used is also different. Standing on each side of the Buddha are two Bodhisattvas, a feature that clearly reflects the influence of the Mahāyāna Buddhist tradition.

Though the prabhāmaṇḍala (halo) behind the Buddha is partially broken, the statue remains impressive. Given the passage of 1,890 years, we would not have known the identity of the sculptor had it not been for the inscription carved into its base.

The Inscription

The inscription, written in Hybrid Sanskrit using the Brāhmī script, consists of two lines. It was translated by the French scholar Gerard Fussman. The content is as follows:

Transliterated Sanskrit:

Mahārājasya Kaniṣkasya saṁ 4 varṣa 3 di 26 bhikṣusya Bodhisenasya saddhievihārisya bhadantasya Dharmanandisya bodhisattvo pratiṣṭhāpito svakāyaṁ cetiyakūṭeyaṁ saha mātāpitiḥi saha pitāsikāye Bhadraye saha sarvasattvehi

English Translation:

"In the 4th year of King Kaniṣka the Great, in the 3rd month of the rainy season, on the 26th day, this Bodhisattva image was established by Venerable Dharmanandi, the faithful monastery resident and disciple of Bhikṣu Bodhisena, at his own sacred stupa site. It was dedicated together with his father and mother, his paternal aunt Bhadra, and for the benefit of all sentient beings."

Summary:

• The creator of this sacred Bodhisattva image was Venerable Dharmanandi, a disciple of Venerable Bodhisena.

• The statue was dedicated at Dharmanandi’s own religious site (cetiya-kūṭa).

• It was offered together with his parents and his father’s sister, Bhadra, in merit for all living beings—an expression of Mahāyāna compassion.

• The date of creation corresponds to year 4 of King Kaniṣka's reign, which is estimated as 674 BE (170 CE).
  As of today (2025 CE / 2568 BE), this statue is approximately 1,890 years old.

The Statue’s Journey:

After its discovery, Cunningham preserved the statue at the Archaeological Survey of India’s Mathurā office, as there was no museum at the time. Eventually, it was transferred abroad and is now on display at the Kimbell Art Museum in Texas, United States, where it remains to this day.

Reflection:

This single statue, created nearly two millennia ago by a devoted teacher and his family, encapsulates an entire narrative of artistic tradition, religious lineage, and boundless compassion. From ancient Mathurā to a modern Western museum, the image continues to shine as a timeless beacon of Buddhist faith and heritage.

"Chiselled with faith, carried by time—Venerable Dharmanandi’s offering continues to inspire across continents and centuries."

Even This Much Still Has Meaning

Since around 200 BE (343 BCE), Buddhism began to split into numerous sects, ultimately forming 18 schools due to differing interpretations of discipline (vinaya) and doctrine (view). One of these was the Sarvāstivāda school, known in Pāli as Sabbatthikavāda.

Understanding the Names:

Sabbatthikavāda (Pāli):

Sabba = all, atthi = exists, vāda = doctrine

→ “The doctrine that everything exists.”

Sarvāstivāda (Sanskrit):

Sarva = all, asti = exists, vādin = proponent or one who teaches

→ “Those who teach that everything exists.”

This school favored Sanskrit inscriptions, unlike the Theravāda tradition which preserved its texts and inscriptions in Pāli. From around 400 BE (143 BCE) onward, Sarvāstivāda became widespread, especially in northern India and areas as far west as Afghanistan.

Archaeological Evidence:

In 1863 CE (2406 BE), Alexander Cunningham conducted an excavation at the Katra Mound in Mathurā, where he unearthed many Buddha and Bodhisattva images. Among them was one statue of which only the base remained—but even that base contained significant information.

The Inscription:

The inscription was written in a mix of Sanskrit and Prakrit, using the Brāhmī script, and dates to around 600 BE (57 BCE). Despite being fragmentary, it preserves the following content:

Reconstructed lines:

... (upāsikāye) Nandāye kṣatraparṣa

... (Bodhisattva) visa tale

sarvasattvānāṁ hitasukhārtham

sarvāstivādiyānāṁ parigrahe

Translation:

"This Bodhisattva image is a meritorious offering of the laywoman named Nandā, descended from the Kṣatrapa (royal) family. May the merit be for the welfare and happiness of all sentient beings, and may it be dedicated to the masters of the Sarvāstivāda school."

Interpretation:

The donor, Upāsikā Nandā, was a laywoman of noble lineage from the Kṣatrapa dynasty (a lineage of Indo-Scythian or Indo-Parthian rulers).

She dedicated a Bodhisattva image—suggesting Mahāyāna influence—for the benefit of all beings.

Importantly, the inscription explicitly states that this offering was intended for the Sarvāstivāda school, highlighting sectarian affiliation.

Reflection:

Though only the base of the statue remains, the inscription is rich in meaning. It connects us to:

A historical donor of royal heritage

A specific Buddhist sect (Sarvāstivāda)

The intention of universal compassion through merit-making

A glimpse of the sectarian landscape of early Indian Buddhism

“Even a broken base, weathered by time, can still speak volumes across the centuries.”

The Buddha Image by Venerable Teacher Vīrana

Today we journey to the ancient city of Ahichchatra (modern-day Ramnagar), located in Barailly District, Uttar Pradesh, approximately 200 kilometers from Mathurā. This city, too, is one of the ancient urban centers of India with significant Buddhist heritage.

In 1174 BE (631 CE), the famous Chinese monk Xuanzang (Hsüan-tsang) visited this city and recorded that there were 30 monasteries with over 3,000 monks, most of whom belonged to the Sammatīya school (a Buddhist sect of the Sthaviravāda lineage).

The site underwent excavation in 1862 CE (2405 BE) under the direction of Alexander Cunningham, who uncovered stupas, monasteries, and many Buddha images at the Chatra Mound within Ahichchatra.

The Discovery:

Among the unearthed artifacts was a particularly elegant seated Buddha image in the gesture of granting blessings (abhaya-mudrā). Flanking the Buddha are two standing Bodhisattvas:

• Vajrapāṇi on the left

• Padmapāṇi on the right

At the base of the image is a sculptural depiction of devotees worshipping the Bodhi Tree, all beautifully carved from red sandstone in the Mathurā style. Scholars believe the statue was carved in Mathurā and then transported to be enshrined in a monastery within Ahichchatra.

The Inscription:

Beneath the base of the Buddha image is an inscription in refined Sanskrit, written in Brāhmī script, consisting of three lines:

Saṁ 30 2 Hemanta 4 Māsa 8 Di Mahārājasya Kaniṣkasya deyadharmo yaṁ Śākya-bhikṣor Bhadanta Vīranasya ca mātāpitṛ…ācāryopadhyāya sarvasattvān…

Translation:

In the 32nd year, 4th month of the winter season, on the 8th day, during the reign of King Kaniṣka the Great, this religious gift (deyadharma) was made by the Śākya monk, the Venerable Vīrana, along with his mother and father, for the benefit and happiness of his teachers, preceptors, and all sentient beings.

Summary:

This Buddha image was created during the reign of King Kaniṣka the Great, one of the most powerful and influential rulers of the Kushan Dynasty, who is known for his patronage of Buddhism.

• The donor of the statue was Venerable Teacher Vīrana, a monk of the Śākya tradition.

• He dedicated the image together with his parents, as a meritorious offering for the benefit of his teachers (ācārya and upādhyāya) and all beings.

Current Location:

Today, this sacred image is housed and displayed at the Delhi Museum (National Museum, Delhi).
Visitors and devotees may pay homage to this extraordinary artifact that reflects the devotion, craftsmanship, and legacy of early Indian Buddhism.

A timeless offering by a devoted monk, now a lasting treasure of Buddhist heritage.

Inscription at the Image of Mahākassapa in Silao

In 1934 CE (2477 BE), a British archaeologist discovered numerous ancient artifacts—such as Buddha images, stone stupas, and sculpted temple entrance stones—in Silao Village, located on the road between Rājagaha (Rajgir) and Nālandā in present-day Bihar, India. Today, Silao is a well-known tourist stop, famed for its sweet called Khaja (known among Thais as “Kha-cha,” humorously suggesting it makes your legs numb).

In the Buddha’s time, this area was a royal park belonging to King Bimbisāra, called Amba-Latthika-Vana, meaning “Mango and Palm Grove.” Prince Rāhula, the Buddha’s son, once spent the rains retreat (vassa) here before the King donated the park to the monastic order, making it a full-fledged monastery—similar to the Veḷuvana (Bamboo Grove) monastery.

This site is notable for being the setting of the Brahmajāla Sutta, the first sutta in the Dīgha Nikāya of the Pāli Tipiṭaka. If you open Volume 9 of the Pāli Canon (the first volume of the Sutta Pitaka), you will immediately find this sutta.

Story Background in the Brahmajāla Sutta:

The sutta begins with Suppiya the Wanderer (paribbājaka) and his disciple Brahmadatta Kumāra traveling together. They arrived at the Amba-Latthika Royal Park. Had this been the only detail, we might not know its location—but the Pāli text clarifies:

“antarā ca Rājagahaṁ antarā ca Nālandāṁ”

—meaning "between Rājagaha and Nālandā.”

This is key: the distance between Rajgir and Nālandā is about 16 km, and halfway lies the village of Silao. At this spot, master and disciple had a sharp disagreement—the teacher insulted the Buddha, the Dhamma, and the Saṅgha, while the student praised and revered them. This incident reached the Buddha, who used it as a teaching moment to deliver a profound discourse on three levels of morality (minor, medium, and great), and the 62 wrong views (diṭṭhi), prevalent in ancient India.

Discovery of Mahākassapa’s Sculpture:

At the edge of the village, there are remains of ancient Buddhist structures. One artifact discovered was a black stone statue in a kneeling posture. Without an inscription, its identity would be unknown. Luckily, an inscription in Sanskrit, written in the script of the Pāla Dynasty (circa 1300 BE / 757 CE), is carved on the statue’s base.

Sanskrit Inscription (summarized in translation):

Success! He who had once been a mighty king of the gods for seven cycles without interruption, who was born into a noble and glorious human family, radiant like gold, swift beyond measure, and who renounced riches and wife with contentment—this noble being turned his mind toward the suffering and forsaken. Even the gods revere him. He was deeply devoted to the Blessed One (Bhagavat Buddha), and during the time of the Buddha’s passing (Parinibbāna), the Buddha granted him the remaining monastic robe (saṅghāṭi). He became the upholder of the Dhamma, guiding others to the path of Nibbāna. On a sacred mountain called Gurupāda, this being, Mahākassapa, continues to shine.

Key Highlights:

The inscription clearly names the mountain "Gurupāda" using the phrase:

“Gurupāde girau ramye” — “on the delightful mountain called Gurupāda.”

It also confirms that Mahākassapa attained final liberation (parinibbāna) at this location.

This strongly links Mahākassapa with Gurupāda Mountain, but identifying the exact mountain isn’t simple because the state of Bihar has many hills.

Scholarly Opinions on the Identity of Gurupāda:

Sir Alexander Cunningham believed that the modern Kurkihar Hill is the Gurupāda of the inscription.

Sir John Marshall identified it as the modern Gurpa Hill.

Mukherjee, an Indian historian and archaeologist, also pointed to Gurpa Hill, where a stone footprint of Mahākassapa was found at the summit—with an inscription surrounding it.

Today, most scholars agree that Gurupāda refers to Gurpa Hill, located in Gaya District, Bihar, based on:

The inscription’s mention of Gurupāda.

The footprint relic.

Corroborating distance and location data from Yijing, the Chinese monk-traveler and scholar.

Status Today:

The statue of Mahākassapa still exists in a small Hindu temple at the back of Silao village, where the Khaja sweets are sold.

Occasionally, local Hindu devotees apply red and orange powder to the statue as part of their offering rituals.

Linguistic Note:

The name “Kassapa” in Pāli is Kassapa (कस्सप), while in Sanskrit it appears as Kāśyapa (काश्यप).

The Cycle of Suffering

Exploring key concepts within Buddhism, particularly focusing on the cycle of suffering and its underlying causes Two Roots (of the past) Avijjā (Ignorance): A lack of understanding of reality, leading to clinging and suffering. Tanhã (Craving): The desire for things to be different than they are, fueled by ignorance. These two together create the foundation for the cycle of rebirth and suffering. Two Truths: Samudaya Sacca (Arising Truth): The truth of the arising of suffering, caused by craving and ignorance. 1st & 2nd segment: Refers to the arising of suffering in the past, influenced by avijjā and tanhã. 3rd & 4th segment: Refers to the arising of suffering in the present, influenced by avijjā and tanhã. Dukkha Sacca (Truth of Suffering): The truth of the nature of suffering itself, which is inherent to existence. Four Layers: Past Causal Layer: The actions and intentions (karma) from the past that shape the present. Present Resultant Layer: The present experiences arising from past karma. Present Causal Layer: The actions and intentions of the present, shaping the future. Future Resultant Layer: The future experiences resulting from current actions. Twelve Factors: Avijjā (Ignorance): The root of all suffering. Sankhāra (Kammic Formation): The volitional actions motivated by ignorance and craving. Viññana (Rebirth Consciousness): The consciousness that arises from karma and leads to rebirth. Nama-rupa (Mind and Matter): The physical and mental components of a being. Salāyatana (Six Sense Bases): The six senses (sight, sound, smell, taste, touch, and mind). Phassa (Contact): The interaction between the sense bases and their objects. Vedanā (Feeling): The experience of pleasure, pain, or neutrality arising from contact. Tanhã (Craving): The desire for things to be different, fuelled by feeling. Upādāna (Clinging): The attachment to things, thoughts, or ideas, fueled by craving. Kamma-bhava (Becoming): The process of becoming a new being, influenced by karma. Jāti (Rebirth): The actual act of being reborn. Jarā-marana (Decay and Death): The aging and eventual death of the being. Main Factors: * This simply refers to all twelve factors listed above, highlighting that they are interconnected and contribute to the cycle of suffering. Three Links: * This refers to the specific connections between three pairs of factors within the twelve-factor chain: Sankhara (kammic formation) & Viññāṇa (consciousness): Karma directly influences the type of consciousness that arises at rebirth. Vedanā (feeling) & Tanhã (craving): Pleasant feelings often fuel craving, while unpleasant feelings can lead to aversion, both driving the cycle. Kamma-bhava (becoming) & Jāti (rebirth): The process of becoming a new being ultimately results in rebirth. Two Roots (in the present): Tanhã (Craving): The desire that drives suffering in the current moment. Avijjā (Ignorance): The lack of understanding that fuels craving in the present. Three Rounds (Vatta): Kilesa Vatta (Round of Defilements): The cycle of negative mental states like greed, hatred, and delusion. Kamma Vatta (Round of Kamma): The cycle of actions driven by defilements, creating new karma. Vipāka Vatta (Round of Resultant): The cycle of experiencing the results of karma, leading to further suffering and rebirth. Three Periods (Kāla): Past: The time that has already passed. Present: The time that is currently happening. Future:The time that is yet to come. Twenty Modes: * This refers to a detailed breakdown of the four layers (past causal, present resultant, present causal, and future resultant) and how they operate in different ways: Five Past Causal Modes: The five types of actions and intentions from the past that influence the present. Five Present Resultant Modes: The five ways in which past karma manifests in the present. Five Present Causal Modes: The five types of actions and intentions in the present that influence the future. Five Future Resultant Modes: The five ways in which present karma will manifest in the future. Trying to understand and accepting the truth of pațiccasamuppāda will deliver one to freedom from samsara.