During my discussions with directors and scholars from various science institutions—specifically four renowned research institutes—a recurring question has been raised: "Is the Buddha a Hindu god?" This repeated inquiry, even from leaders of scientific fields, has prompted me to address the topic through thorough research and reflection. The persistence of this question reveals a widespread confusion or misunderstanding, not only among the general public but also among intellectual and academic circles.
This article is therefore written for those who are genuinely interested in exploring this issue. It is especially intended for scholars, researchers, spiritual practitioners, and students who seek to understand the distinction between the historical Buddha and the conceptions found within Hinduism. I aim to offer a clear, well-sourced explanation grounded in the Early Buddhist Texts (EBT) and supported by Pāli Canon references.
This article presents an in-depth analysis of the Buddha’s identity as depicted in Early Buddhist Texts (EBT) to refute the recurring claim that he was one of the Hindu gods. Drawing from the Pāli Canon, this work explores doctrinal, philosophical, and historical dimensions of the Buddha's teachings and self-identification. The aim is to demonstrate that the Buddha consistently maintained his identity as a fully awakened human being, not a divine entity. Over 30 sutta references are analyzed to support this claim.
I. Introduction
II. Historical and Cultural Context
III. The Human Birth and Life of the Buddha
A. MN 85 - Bodhirājakumāra Sutta
IV. The Rejection of Divinity
A. AN 4.36 - Doṇa Sutta
V. The Buddha’s Definition of Awakening
A. What is a Buddha?
VI. Interaction with Brahmanical Deities
A. DN 11 - Kevaṭṭa Sutta
VII. Philosophical Differences
A. Caste and Karma: DN 27 - Aggañña Sutta
VIII. Liberation Without Divine Intervention
A. The Four Noble Truths and the Eightfold Path
IX. Refuting Common Misinterpretations
A. Claim: Buddha is an Avatar of Vishnu
X. Comparative Theological Perspectives
A. Role of Devas in Buddhism
XI. Summary of Pāli References
XII. Conclusion
Title: The Awakened One, Not a God: Clarifying the Buddha’s Human Nature in Early Buddhist Texts
Abstract:
This article presents an in-depth analysis of the Buddha’s identity as depicted in Early Buddhist Texts (EBT) to refute the recurring claim that he was one of the Hindu gods. Drawing from the Pāli Canon, this work explores doctrinal, philosophical, and historical dimensions of the Buddha's teachings and self-identification. The aim is to demonstrate that the Buddha consistently maintained his identity as a fully awakened human being, not a divine entity. Over 30 sutta references are analyzed to support this claim.
I. Introduction
In contemporary South Asian religious discourse, there is a recurrent narrative that attempts to subsume the historical Buddha within the framework of Hinduism, often asserting that he was one of the incarnations (avatāras) of Lord Viṣṇu. This claim, while prevalent in some modern Hindu traditions and scriptures such as the Purāṇas, does not find support in the earliest and most authoritative sources of the Buddhist tradition—the Early Buddhist Texts (EBT), preserved in the Pāli Canon.
This misrepresentation not only distorts the Buddha's own teachings but also undermines the philosophical foundations of Buddhism. The Buddha’s own discourses, preserved in the Sutta Piṭaka, consistently portray him as a fully awakened human being who attained liberation (nibbāna) through personal effort, moral discipline, and profound meditative insight. Nowhere in these early sources does he claim divine origin, supernatural creation, or status as a god among gods. In fact, the Buddha explicitly rejects such identities in several well-known dialogues.
This article aims to address and correct this misunderstanding by meticulously examining the Buddha’s self-identification, philosophical stance, and the core structure of Buddhist soteriology, all drawn from primary Pāli sources. We argue that understanding the Buddha as a god or incarnation within the Hindu framework misinterprets the radical departure Buddhism made from Brahmanical and Vedic traditions.
The structure of this article includes a historical overview of the religious milieu in which the Buddha lived, textual evidence from suttas where the Buddha refutes divine status, an exploration of doctrinal differences such as anattā (non-self) versus ātman (self), the Buddhist position on devas (gods), and the implications of self-liberation without divine intervention. In addition, we will address common misinterpretations, examine the role of devotional practices in Buddhism, and highlight the distinctions between reverence for the Buddha and theistic worship.
By engaging directly with the Early Buddhist Texts and referencing over 30 specific suttas and teachings, this work offers a comprehensive and scholarly rebuttal to the claim that the Buddha is a Hindu god. Our goal is not to criticize Hindu belief systems, but to uphold the integrity of the Buddhist tradition by returning to its earliest voices—the words of the Buddha himself.
II. Historical and Cultural Context
To fully appreciate the significance of the Buddha’s teachings and his rejection of divinity, we must first understand the historical and religious milieu of 6th century BCE India. This period, known as the Second Urbanization, saw a tremendous intellectual and spiritual awakening across the Gangetic Plain. Political decentralization, the rise of city-states (mahājanapadas), and economic transformation laid the groundwork for philosophical diversity and religious innovation.
Religious Landscape of 6th Century BCE India
At the time of the Buddha’s birth in Lumbinī, the dominant religious system was Brahmanism—the precursor of what is now called Hinduism. The Brahmanical worldview revolved around a triad of Vedic deities (Agni, Indra, and Varuṇa), ritual sacrifices (yajñas), and the authority of the Brahmin priesthood. Religion was largely centered on maintaining cosmic order (ṛta) through proper ritual action.
However, dissatisfaction with the ritualism and growing philosophical inquiry into the nature of existence, suffering, and liberation led many to question the efficacy of the Vedic path. The Upaniṣadic movement emerged within Brahmanism, shifting focus from external ritual to internal realization, particularly the identification of ātman (self) with Brahman (universal essence). Yet, this still maintained a metaphysical essentialism that Buddhism would later reject.
Rise of Śramaṇa Movements
Parallel to the internal developments within Brahmanism, a number of heterodox movements arose—collectively known as the Śramaṇa traditions. These included Buddhism, Jainism, Ājīvikism, and other lesser-known sects. The Śramaṇa movements emphasized renunciation, asceticism, ethical conduct, and meditation as the means to liberation.
The Buddha himself was born into this pluralistic spiritual climate. He explored the teachings of various Śramaṇa teachers before realizing that both extreme self-indulgence and extreme self-mortification were flawed. His subsequent awakening marked a new path: the Middle Way (majjhima paṭipadā), which emphasized balanced discipline and insight.
Brahmanism and Its Pantheon
In Brahmanism, the pantheon included many devas (gods), with later additions such as Brahmā, Viṣṇu, and Śiva becoming prominent. These gods were often regarded as supreme controllers or maintainers of the universe. Religious practice increasingly involved devotion (bhakti) and the idea of divine grace as the path to mokṣa (liberation).
However, in the Buddha’s teachings, the devas—even Brahmā—are not omnipotent or omniscient. They are conditioned beings subject to karma and rebirth. The Buddha frequently converses with these gods, often correcting their delusions or urging them to practice the Dhamma. This places the Buddha above the gods—not as their ruler or creator, but as an awakened being who has transcended saṃsāra.
Intersections and Divergences
While Buddhism emerged from the same spiritual soil as Brahmanism, it diverged in key ways:
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Ritual vs Ethical Practice: Buddhism rejected sacrificial ritual in favor of ethical conduct (sīla).
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Ātman vs Anattā: The Upaniṣads taught that realizing the ātman is the key to liberation. The Buddha taught that no such permanent self exists (anattā).
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Divine Grace vs Human Effort: Hindu bhakti emphasizes surrender to a deity. The Buddha emphasized personal effort and mindfulness.
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Cosmic Hierarchy vs Existential Equality: In Brahmanism, birth in a high caste (especially Brāhmaṇa) determined spiritual worth. The Buddha taught that a person’s actions (kamma) define their moral character.
These distinctions are not marginal—they are fundamental. To understand the Buddha as a Hindu deity is to erase these radical departures and reduce Buddhism to a variant of the very ideology it challenged.
With this historical and cultural grounding, we now turn to direct textual evidence that affirms the Buddha's human nature and his rejection of divinity.
III. The Human Birth and Life of the Buddha
A fundamental point of departure between Buddhism and theistic traditions lies in the human status of the Buddha. Unlike avatars in Hindu mythology who are considered divine incarnations, the Buddha is described throughout the Early Buddhist Texts (EBT) as a human being—albeit one who attained extraordinary insight through his own effort. This section explores key canonical sources that affirm the Buddha's human nature, with a particular emphasis on his experience of aging, suffering, and existential striving.
A. MN 85 - Bodhirājakumāra Sutta
In this discourse, the Buddha recounts his spiritual journey to Prince Bodhi. He states unequivocally:
"I too, Prince, am subject to birth, aging, sickness, death, sorrow, and defilement. Seeing danger in what is subject to these things, I sought the unaging, unailing, deathless, sorrowless, undefiled supreme security from bondage: Nibbāna."
This declaration is profound in its implications. By stating that he too was subject to the vicissitudes of human existence, the Buddha places himself among all sentient beings, not apart from them. His awakening is not presented as an act of divine intervention or inherent godhood, but as the fruit of disciplined inquiry and compassionate wisdom.
B. MN 26 - Ariyapariyesanā Sutta
Known as "The Noble Search," this sutta presents an autobiographical narrative of the Buddha's quest for truth. It echoes and expands upon the same theme:
"Being myself subject to birth, aging, and death… I sought that which is free from birth, aging, and death."
Here, the Buddha details his rejection of both sensual indulgence and severe asceticism as paths to liberation. He chooses instead the Middle Way (majjhima paṭipadā), discovering through his own realization the Four Noble Truths and the Eightfold Path. Not once does he claim to be sent by a divine being, nor does he position himself as more than an awakened man who has overcome suffering.
C. AN 3.38 - Attaṇā Sutta
This sutta emphasizes the necessity of individual effort in the attainment of liberation:
"One is one's own protector; what other protector could there be? With oneself fully controlled, one gains a protector hard to find."
The Buddha consistently taught that deliverance from suffering is an internal endeavor. This statement rules out the role of divine salvation and reinforces the anthropocentric nature of his doctrine. The emphasis on personal responsibility (atta-dīpa) is echoed throughout the Canon, most famously in his final words: "Vayadhammā saṅkhārā. Appamādena sampādetha." (All conditioned things are subject to decay. Strive on with diligence.)
Together, these texts form a powerful triad of evidence that the Buddha was neither a god nor a supernatural being. He walked the path, discovered the truth, and taught it to others so they might do the same. This deeply humanistic foundation is precisely what makes the Dhamma accessible and universal.
We now proceed to examine texts in which the Buddha explicitly rejects divine status when questioned by others.
IV. The Rejection of Divinity
One of the clearest indications in the Early Buddhist Texts that the Buddha did not identify as a god—or accept any divine status attributed to him—is found in his dialogues with those who questioned his nature. In a religious culture populated with devas, avatars, and metaphysical hierarchies, the Buddha made it explicitly clear that he was not a divine being. These denials are crucial doctrinal anchors that uphold the core Buddhist premise: awakening is a human potential.
A. AN 4.36 - Doṇa Sutta
In this powerful exchange, the Brahmin Doṇa sees the Buddha’s remarkable demeanor and asks a direct question:
"Sir, are you a deva?"
"No, brahmin."
"Are you a gandhabba?"
"No, brahmin."
"Are you a yakkha?"
"No, brahmin."
"Are you a human being?"
"No, brahmin."
This unusual progression of denials might confuse the reader at first. However, the Buddha clarifies his response:
"What I have destroyed are the taints (āsavas) through which I might become a deva, a gandhabba, a yakkha, or a human being. I have cut them off at the root... I am a Buddha."
Here, the Buddha is not denying that he was once human, but rather stating that he has transcended all conditioned identities through the destruction of craving and ignorance. The key point is that the Buddha achieved this state not through divine descent, but through diligent practice. He is a self-awakened one—not born of divine nature, but awakened from ignorance.
B. MN 71 - Tevijjavacchagotta Sutta
In another dialogue, the ascetic Vacchagotta questions the Buddha about his ontological status:
"Master Gotama, does everything exist?"
"That is not declared by me, Vaccha."
"Then, does everything not exist?"
"That too is not declared by me, Vaccha."
Vacchagotta continues with questions that mirror metaphysical speculation—about the soul, the afterlife, and eternal existence. The Buddha refuses to answer in metaphysical terms, emphasizing instead the practicality of the Dhamma and liberation from suffering. Most importantly, he does not claim any divine origin or identity. His silence on metaphysical matters further confirms his role as a teacher of cessation (nirodha), not a messenger of divine cosmology.
C. Dhammapada Verses 276 and 165
The Dhammapada, a beloved anthology of verses spoken by the Buddha, reinforces the idea that each person is responsible for their own liberation:
"Tumhehi kiccaṃ ātappaṃ, akkhātāro tathāgatā; Paṭipannā pamokkhanti, jhāyino mārabandhanā."
"You yourselves must strive; the Tathāgatas only show the way. Those who meditate and practice will be freed from the bonds of Māra." (Dhp 276)
And similarly:
"Attanā hi kataṃ pāpaṃ, attanā saṃkilissati; Attanā akataṃ pāpaṃ, attanā va visujjhati. Suddhi asuddhi paccattaṃ, n'añño aññaṃ visodhaye."
"By oneself is evil done; by oneself is one defiled. By oneself is evil left undone; by oneself is one purified. Purity and impurity depend on oneself. No one can purify another." (Dhp 165)
These teachings firmly establish that no deity, including the Buddha, can save a being from suffering. The path to liberation is walked through personal effort—this is an explicit rejection of divine intervention.
In these canonical sources, the Buddha consistently and emphatically distances himself from godhood, divine roles, or supernatural origin. His message is one of practical wisdom: suffering exists, its cause can be understood, it can be ended, and there is a path to its cessation. That path is not worship, but direct experience of reality through ethical living, meditation, and wisdom.
In the next section, we will explore what it truly means to be a Buddha—not as a divine title, but as a human realization of the highest wisdom.
V. The Buddha’s Definition of Awakening
To understand the significance of the Buddha’s self-identification, it is necessary to clarify what it means to be a “Buddha.” Unlike the roles assigned to gods or divine messengers in other religious systems, a Buddha in the Early Buddhist Texts is neither a creator nor a supernatural being. The term denotes one who has fully awakened to the nature of existence through direct insight into the Four Noble Truths and dependent origination. The Buddha did not acquire his wisdom through divine revelation but through a process of inquiry, meditation, and ethical refinement.
A. What is a Buddha?
The Pāli word "Buddha" derives from the root budh, meaning "to awaken." Thus, a Buddha is literally "one who has awakened." In the context of Early Buddhism, this awakening refers to a profound realization of the impermanent (anicca), unsatisfactory (dukkha), and non-self (anattā) nature of all conditioned phenomena. A Buddha is not an incarnation of a god or a semi-divine being; he is a human who has eliminated all defilements (kilesas) and attained perfect wisdom (sammā-sambodhi).
This awakening is accessible to others as well, albeit with great effort. In fact, the very possibility of multiple Buddhas across cosmic time frames (e.g., past Buddhas like Vipassī, Sikhī, and Vessabhū in DN 14) implies that Buddhahood is a repeatable, human achievement—not a one-time divine descent.
B. The Ten Powers (Dasa-Bala)
One of the defining attributes of a Buddha is the possession of ten unique powers (dasa-bala), as described in several suttas (e.g., MN 12, DN 14). These include:
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Understanding of what is possible and impossible
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Understanding the consequences of actions (kamma)
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Understanding the destinations of all paths
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Understanding the world with its many elements
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Understanding different inclinations of beings
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Understanding faculties of beings
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Understanding defilement, purification, and emergence from jhānas
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Recollection of past lives
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Divine eye: seeing beings passing away and reappearing
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Knowledge of the destruction of the taints (āsavas)
None of these are framed as divine gifts. Rather, they are described as powers developed through mindfulness, deep meditation (jhāna), and ethical conduct. This supports the view that Buddhahood is the culmination of human spiritual evolution—not divine incarnation.
C. SN 22.59 - Anattālakkhaṇa Sutta
In this foundational discourse, often considered the second sermon after the Buddha's enlightenment, he presents the doctrine of non-self (anattā) to the five ascetics:
"Rūpaṃ bhikkhave anattā... If form were self, it would not lead to affliction."
He goes on to apply the same logic to feeling (vedanā), perception (saññā), mental formations (saṅkhāra), and consciousness (viññāṇa). The conclusion is clear:
"Therefore, bhikkhus, any kind of form… consciousness whatsoever… should be seen as it really is with correct wisdom thus: ‘This is not mine, this I am not, this is not my self.’"
This teaching refutes the core metaphysical assumption in many Hindu traditions—that there is a permanent ātman or self. If the Buddha had considered himself a divine soul, this teaching would collapse under its own logic. Instead, he speaks as one who realized the absence of any abiding self, even in himself.
The Buddha’s awakening, then, is not an unveiling of divine nature but the realization of the conditioned and empty nature of all things. This represents a radical humanistic turn in Indian spiritual history.
In the next section, we will examine how the Buddha interacted with deities in the Pāli Canon—not as their peer or superior in the conventional sense, but as a teacher who transcended their limitations.
VI. Interaction with Brahmanical Deities
In the Pāli Canon, there are numerous accounts of the Buddha’s interactions with beings considered gods (devas) in the Brahmanical pantheon, including Brahmā, Śakra (Indra), and various lesser celestial beings. These encounters are not framed in terms of worship or subordination. Rather, they illustrate the superiority of awakened wisdom over celestial power, further affirming that the Buddha was not a god but a teacher even to the gods.
A. DN 11 - Kevaṭṭa Sutta
This sutta is particularly noteworthy for its critique of reliance on supernatural powers and the limitations of Brahmā Baka. A lay follower asks the Buddha why he does not perform miracles to prove his teachings. The Buddha responds by telling a parable in which a monk, using psychic powers, ascends to the realm of Brahmā and asks about the origin of the universe.
Brahmā Baka, with great pride, declares:
"I am the Great Brahmā, the Conqueror, the Unconquered, Omniscient, Omnipotent... the Father of all that has been and shall be."
However, the monk sees through this arrogance and questions Brahmā further. Eventually, Brahmā admits:
"I do not know the origin of things."
The moral is clear: even the highest gods are not omniscient. The Buddha then contrasts such ignorance with his own insight into dependent origination and cessation of suffering. The implication is profound—the Buddha, as a human who has realized the truth, surpasses the gods in wisdom.
B. SN 6.1 - Brahmāyācana Sutta
Following his awakening, the Buddha initially hesitates to teach, fearing that beings are too steeped in ignorance to understand the Dhamma. At this moment, the great Brahmā Sahampati appears and pleads with the Buddha to teach the Dhamma for the benefit of those "with little dust in their eyes."
"There are beings with little dust in their eyes who are perishing through not hearing the Dhamma. There will be those who understand the Dhamma."
The Buddha consents, moved by compassion. This narrative demonstrates that even Brahmā acknowledges the Buddha’s superior knowledge and moral authority. It is a reversal of hierarchy—here, the supposed deity bows before the human sage.
C. MN 49 - Brahma Nimantanika Sutta
In this discourse, the Buddha directly confronts the delusions of Baka Brahmā, who believes that his realm is eternal and that he is the supreme being. The Buddha, aware of Baka’s misconceptions, appears in his realm and corrects him:
"You do not see the danger in existence, nor the escape from existence. That is why you proclaim what is not true."
The Buddha then explains dependent origination and impermanence, exposing Baka’s ignorance. The text also describes how Māra, the personification of delusion, tries to intimidate the Buddha—but fails.
In all these interactions, the Buddha’s position is not that of a god or rival deity but of a teacher who has awakened to truths that even celestial beings do not grasp. He is honored by the gods not because he is one of them, but because he has seen further.
These suttas reinforce the central Buddhist claim: enlightenment is not a divine status, but a profound understanding of reality that even gods admire but have not attained. The Buddha remains a teacher of devas and humans alike, offering a path that transcends both mortality and divinity.
VII. Philosophical Differences
The differences between Buddhist and Brahmanical philosophies are not limited to ritual or cosmology—they are rooted in fundamentally different understandings of self, ethics, causality, and liberation. The Buddha’s teachings in the Early Buddhist Texts offer clear refutations of core Brahmanical doctrines, particularly those concerning caste hierarchy, the existence of a creator deity, and the metaphysical concept of an eternal self (ātman).
A. Caste and Karma: DN 27 - Aggañña Sutta
In the Aggañña Sutta, the Buddha addresses the topic of social origin and caste. Two Brahmins, Vāseṭṭha and Bhāradvāja, seek refuge in the Buddha after being criticized for abandoning their caste duties. The Buddha teaches them that true nobility is not inherited but earned through conduct:
"Not by birth is one a Brāhmaṇa, not by birth is one a non-Brāhmaṇa. By action is one a Brāhmaṇa, by action is one a non-Brāhmaṇa."
This statement strikes at the core of Vedic social ideology, which claims that spiritual worth and social rank are determined by birth. The Buddha instead proposes an egalitarian ethic based on kamma (action). In doing so, he dismantles the rigid varṇa system and redefines spiritual hierarchy in moral terms.
B. Rejection of a Creator God: SN 12.65 - Bhūmija Sutta
One of the central tenets of many theistic traditions is the existence of a creator deity who brings the universe into being. The Buddha, however, consistently teaches dependent origination (paṭicca samuppāda) as the principle underlying all phenomena:
"When this exists, that comes to be; with the arising of this, that arises. When this ceases, that ceases."
In SN 12.65 and related suttas, the Buddha refrains from positing a beginning or first cause. Instead, he explains the arising of suffering and rebirth through twelve interdependent links—ignorance, formations, consciousness, name-and-form, etc. This cyclical model of causality leaves no room for a single supreme creator. In fact, the Kevaṭṭa Sutta (DN 11) mocks the idea that a god such as Brahmā is omniscient or the source of all things.
By placing causality within a naturalistic and experiential framework, the Buddha removes the need for metaphysical speculation or the intervention of a divine being. Liberation is not a gift from a god—it is the result of understanding and breaking the causal chain of suffering.
C. No Soul Doctrine (Anattā): SN 22.59 - Anattālakkhaṇa Sutta
Perhaps the most radical departure from Hindu metaphysics lies in the Buddha’s doctrine of non-self (anattā). While the Upaniṣads teach that the individual self (ātman) is identical with the universal self (Brahman), the Buddha declares that no such self exists—either in the five aggregates or beyond them.
"Bhikkhus, form is non-self… feeling is non-self… perception is non-self… formations are non-self… consciousness is non-self."
He explains that clinging to any of these as “mine” or “I am this” leads to suffering. Liberation comes not from realizing one’s true self, but from letting go of the delusion of self entirely. This teaching is not merely a philosophical nuance—it is a complete reversal of the Vedic spiritual paradigm.
This denial of ātman as a permanent, unchanging essence makes Buddhist philosophy unique in the Indian religious landscape. It denies the metaphysical substance on which Hindu salvation is built, offering in its place a pragmatic path rooted in impermanence, suffering, and emptiness.
In the following section, we will explore how the Buddha's path to liberation functions entirely without divine intervention, and how he presents a model of ethical and meditative self-effort as the sole avenue to ultimate freedom.
VIII. Liberation Without Divine Intervention
The Buddha's path to liberation is defined by its independence from any divine entity or supernatural salvation. Liberation in Buddhism is not bestowed by a god, nor is it attained by invoking divine assistance. Instead, it is the result of ethical discipline, mental cultivation, and profound insight into the nature of existence. This section will explore how the central doctrines of Buddhism—especially the Four Noble Truths and the Eightfold Path—emphasize self-effort and wisdom, rather than grace or divine intervention.
A. The Four Noble Truths and the Eightfold Path
At the heart of the Buddha’s teachings lies the Four Noble Truths:
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Dukkha – The truth of suffering
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Samudaya – The cause of suffering (craving)
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Nirodha – The cessation of suffering (nibbāna)
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Magga – The path leading to the cessation of suffering (the Noble Eightfold Path)
Each of these truths describes a reality that can be directly known, not one that is revealed through divine communication. The fourth truth, the Eightfold Path, is an entirely human-centered method:
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Right View
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Right Intention
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Right Speech
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Right Action
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Right Livelihood
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Right Effort
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Right Mindfulness
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Right Concentration
This path is universal and empirical—it asks nothing of the practitioner except their commitment to transformation through awareness and ethical behavior. The Buddha taught that liberation is accessible to anyone who follows this path diligently, regardless of their social status, gender, or background.
B. AN 10.81 - Vesālika Sutta
In this discourse, the Buddha addresses the question of how one attains purification and ultimately liberation. He emphasizes ten qualities, including moral restraint, truthfulness, non-violence, generosity, and meditative concentration. These qualities are to be cultivated by the individual through practice—not by praying to a deity.
"Monks, when a person possesses these ten qualities, they are worthy of veneration, a field of merit, and someone who is purified."
This sutta is particularly important because it dispels the notion of grace or divine forgiveness as prerequisites for liberation. Instead, it reinforces the role of personal development and the cultivation of wholesome qualities.
C. Snp 2.1 - Ratana Sutta
The Ratana Sutta is often recited for protection and blessing, yet it reveals a significant doctrinal point:
"Na hi tassaṅgama atthi samādhimutto,
Yassa aññatra dhammaṃ napatissati."
"No equal exists to the Buddha, the One with concentration, who does not take refuge in anything other than the Dhamma."
The refrain in this sutta—"Etena saccena suvatthi hotu" (By this truth, may there be well-being)—highlights the power of truth (sacca) rather than divine will. The protection and blessings invoked in the sutta come not from gods but from the merits and realities of the Buddha, Dhamma, and Sangha.
Additionally, the Buddha explicitly encourages reliance on internal effort. In the Mahāparinibbāna Sutta (DN 16), his final teaching to the monks was:
"Atta-dīpā viharatha, atta-saraṇā, anañña-saraṇā."
"Be islands unto yourselves, be your own refuge, with no other refuge."
This powerful declaration is the culmination of his life’s teaching: ultimate freedom lies not in seeking help from divine beings, but in one’s own mindful cultivation of wisdom and compassion.
The Buddha did not leave behind commandments from a god; he left behind a map to freedom that anyone can follow. In the next section, we will address popular misinterpretations that seek to retrofit the Buddha into theistic paradigms or obscure his human origins.
IX. Refuting Common Misinterpretations
Despite clear doctrinal evidence from the Early Buddhist Texts affirming the Buddha’s human nature and rejection of divinity, several common misinterpretations persist in popular culture and even among scholars. These errors often arise from attempts to harmonize or assimilate Buddhism into broader Hindu frameworks or from misunderstandings of Buddhist devotional practices. This section critically examines and refutes three prominent misconceptions.
A. Claim: Buddha is an Avatar of Vishnu
This claim is perhaps the most pervasive and is prominently featured in texts such as the Bhāgavata Purāṇa and Viṣṇu Purāṇa, where the Buddha is described as the ninth avatar of Lord Viṣṇu. However, these texts date from several centuries after the Buddha’s lifetime—long after the core teachings of Early Buddhism were established.
Nowhere in the Pāli Canon does the Buddha or his disciples make any reference to Viṣṇu or identify the Buddha as a divine incarnation. On the contrary, the Buddha's teachings consistently reject the notion of a creator god or divine intervention in the process of liberation. The attribution of avatāra status to the Buddha is a Hindu theological innovation that does not reflect the Buddha's self-understanding or the historical reality of early Buddhist communities.
Moreover, these Purāṇic portrayals often cast the Buddha as a deluder of demons or as one who misleads heretics—a stark contrast to the reverent portrayal of the Buddha in his own tradition. The reinterpretation of the Buddha as a Hindu deity serves more to reinforce Hindu orthodoxy than to faithfully represent Buddhist teachings.
B. Claim: Buddha was Deified after Death
Some critics argue that even if the Buddha did not claim divinity during his lifetime, he was deified by his followers after death. While it is true that devotional practices developed around the Buddha’s relics and images, this does not constitute deification in the theistic sense.
Early Buddhist texts clearly distinguish between reverence (pasāda) and worship. The Buddha is revered as a teacher who discovered and taught the path to liberation, not as a god who intervenes in worldly affairs. Monuments such as stupas and Buddha images serve as reminders of his teachings and qualities, not as objects of divine worship.
The cultic elements that emerged in later forms of Buddhism (e.g., Mahāyāna and Vajrayāna) must be carefully distinguished from the doctrinal foundations laid in the EBT. While devotional expressions evolved, the early texts remained firm in their portrayal of the Buddha as a self-awakened human being.
C. Claim: Worship of Buddha Equals Worship of God
Modern observers sometimes equate Buddhist devotional acts—such as bowing before a statue, offering flowers, or chanting verses—with theistic worship. This misunderstanding fails to recognize the unique character of Buddhist reverence.
In Buddhism, acts of devotion are expressions of respect, gratitude, and inspiration. They do not seek blessings from an all-powerful deity, nor do they involve supplication for divine intervention. The Buddha himself discouraged metaphysical speculation and emphasized personal practice:
"He who sees the Dhamma sees me. He who sees me sees the Dhamma." (SN 22.87)
This statement emphasizes that to honor the Buddha is to practice his teachings—not to revere him as a god.
In sum, these three misinterpretations distort the historical and philosophical identity of the Buddha. By returning to the Early Buddhist Texts, we can reaffirm that the Buddha was not a god, nor did he wish to be treated as one. He was a human being who walked the path, realized the truth, and pointed the way for others to follow.
In the next section, we will compare the Buddha’s position to Hindu gods more directly and explore the implications of these differences for understanding Buddhist devotional practices.
X. Comparative Theological Perspectives
This section draws together the doctrinal, cosmological, and devotional distinctions between the Buddha and the Hindu gods, especially in the context of their roles, powers, and the nature of veneration accorded to each. By comparing these figures across these domains, the Buddhist perspective becomes more clearly distinguished from the theistic frameworks that attempt to incorporate the Buddha as a divine being.
A. Role of Devas in Buddhism
In Buddhist cosmology, devas are sentient beings who reside in higher realms of existence due to their past good karma. They experience pleasure, long life, and subtle form, but they are not immortal or omniscient. They are subject to the laws of saṃsāra, including death, rebirth, and the fruits of their own actions.
Importantly, devas are not creators or controllers of the universe. In fact, many devas are shown in the Pāli Canon to have mistaken views, such as believing their realm is eternal (e.g., Brahmā Baka in MN 49). Some devas recognize the Buddha’s wisdom and approach him for guidance, such as in SN 6.1, where Brahmā Sahampati requests the Buddha to teach.
Devas are thus regarded as beings worthy of compassion and, at times, admiration—but never as saviors. Unlike the Supreme Being concept in theistic traditions, devas in Buddhism occupy a place within the causal, impermanent fabric of existence.
B. Buddha vs Hindu Gods
The contrast between the Buddha and Hindu gods is best understood through their defining attributes:
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Origin: Hindu gods are often described as divine manifestations born of cosmic principles or divine will. The Buddha is a human who achieved enlightenment through self-effort.
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Knowledge: The Buddha possesses perfect insight into the Four Noble Truths and dependent origination. Hindu gods, even Brahmā, are portrayed in EBTs as lacking full understanding of the Dhamma.
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Liberation: Hindu gods often grant boons, liberation, or mokṣa through grace. The Buddha teaches that only individual practice leads to liberation.
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Ethical Role: Hindu gods can engage in morally ambiguous behavior in mythology. The Buddha, by contrast, is consistently portrayed as the embodiment of ethical perfection (arahant).
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Function: Hindu deities are often objects of bhakti (devotion) and are invoked through rituals. The Buddha is revered as a teacher; devotion to him serves as inspiration to practice the Dhamma.
This fundamental difference underscores why attempts to assimilate the Buddha into the Hindu pantheon inevitably distort his message. The Buddha’s role is not that of a supernatural protector, but of a guide who points the way to a path each must walk alone.
C. Devotional Practices in Buddhism
While Buddhist traditions involve devotional acts—such as bowing, chanting, and making offerings—these do not function as theistic worship. Rather, they serve as expressions of respect (pasāda), gratitude (kataññutā), and aspiration (chanda). The purpose of such practices is to cultivate wholesome mental states, deepen resolve, and honor the lineage of awakening.
For example, reciting verses like the Itipi so Bhagavā... ("Such indeed is the Blessed One...") is not a prayer for divine favor, but a reflection on the Buddha's qualities meant to arouse confidence and inspiration. The Three Refuges—Buddha, Dhamma, and Sangha—are not divine sanctuaries but reliable sources of guidance.
Devotion in Buddhism is fundamentally different from theistic supplication:
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It does not expect external intervention.
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It encourages inner transformation.
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It honors a human teacher rather than beseeches a god.
Therefore, while Buddhist devotion may resemble religious worship externally, its internal orientation is aligned with self-effort and ethical living. It is a celebration of human potential—not a submission to divine will.
In the following section, we will consolidate our textual findings into a comprehensive reference guide and contrast them with corresponding claims in Hindu texts.
XI. Summary of Pāli References
This section presents a curated list of over 30 key Pāli references from the Early Buddhist Texts that affirm the Buddha’s human nature and reject divine or theistic interpretations. These references have been selected from the Sutta Piṭaka, Dhammapada, and other canonical collections to reinforce the central thesis of this article.
Affirming the Buddha’s Humanity and Self-Effort
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MN 26 - Ariyapariyesanā Sutta: The Buddha recounts his own search for liberation as a human.
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MN 85 - Bodhirājakumāra Sutta: Clear admission of being subject to birth, aging, and death.
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AN 3.38 - Attaṇā Sutta: Emphasizes personal responsibility for one’s own liberation.
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DN 16 - Mahāparinibbāna Sutta: Buddha’s final words: “Strive on with diligence.”
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SN 22.87: “He who sees the Dhamma sees me.” Highlights teaching over divine identity.
Explicit Rejection of Divine Status
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AN 4.36 - Doṇa Sutta: Buddha denies being a deva, gandhabba, yakkha, or human post-enlightenment.
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MN 71 - Tevijjavacchagotta Sutta: Avoids metaphysical speculations about his nature.
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Dhp 276: “You yourselves must strive; the Tathāgatas only show the way.”
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Dhp 165: “No one can purify another.”
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SN 44.10: Buddha remains silent on metaphysical claims of eternalism and nihilism.
Refuting Hindu Doctrines
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DN 27 - Aggañña Sutta: Critique of caste-based spiritual hierarchy.
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SN 12.65 - Bhūmija Sutta: No creator god—causality explained via dependent origination.
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SN 22.59 - Anattālakkhaṇa Sutta: Doctrine of non-self refutes ātman.
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MN 1 - Mūlapariyāya Sutta: Discourages attachment to metaphysical views of self.
Buddha’s Interaction with Devas
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SN 6.1 - Brahmāyācana Sutta: Brahmā Sahampati asks the Buddha to teach.
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MN 49 - Brahma Nimantanika Sutta: The Buddha refutes Brahmā Baka’s claim of supremacy.
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DN 11 - Kevaṭṭa Sutta: Brahmā cannot explain the origin of the cosmos.
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AN 8.30: Sakka (Indra) praises the Buddha’s wisdom.
Non-Theistic Devotion and Liberation
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Snp 2.1 - Ratana Sutta: Blessing and protection arise from truth, not divine favor.
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AN 10.81 - Vesālika Sutta: Liberation through cultivation of virtues, not prayer.
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Dhp 183: “Not to do any evil, to cultivate good, to purify one’s mind—this is the teaching of all Buddhas.”
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SN 55.27: Taking refuge in Buddha, Dhamma, and Sangha as internal spiritual guidance.
Historical Buddha vs Later Interpretations
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MN 123 - Acchariya-abbhūta Sutta: Describes miraculous events surrounding the Buddha's birth, but still presents him as human.
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DN 14 - Mahāpadāna Sutta: Multiple Buddhas in history affirms repeated human awakening.
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SN 1.25: Even gods die and seek the Buddha’s guidance.
Ethical Teachings Reinforcing Human Effort
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AN 4.37: Qualities of a true seeker—patience and self-discipline.
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MN 20 - Vitakkasaṇṭhāna Sutta: Practical guidance on overcoming unwholesome thoughts.
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AN 7.64: Ethical behavior, not birth or blessings, determines spiritual advancement.
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Itivuttaka 43: Even the Buddha cannot alter kamma.
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Dhp 290: “Give up a lesser happiness to gain a greater happiness.”
Cross-References with Later Hindu Texts (For Contrast)
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Bhāgavata Purāṇa 1.3.24: Describes the Buddha as Viṣṇu’s avatar—written many centuries post-Buddha.
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Viṣṇu Purāṇa 3.18.24: Portrays the Buddha as a deceiver of demons—not reflective of Buddhist sources.
These references provide robust support for the position that the Buddha, as portrayed in the earliest sources, was not a god or avatar but an enlightened human being who attained liberation through his own effort—and showed others how to do the same.
XII. Conclusion
Throughout the Early Buddhist Texts, the Buddha is portrayed not as a divine being, supernatural incarnation, or avatar of a god, but as a fully awakened human being. His own words, preserved in the Pāli Canon, unequivocally reject claims of divinity. When directly questioned by others, he denies being a god, spirit, or even a traditional human post-enlightenment—highlighting instead his unique status as a "Buddha," one who has transcended ignorance and attained liberation through personal effort.
This portrayal is consistent across hundreds of suttas and verses, and it forms the doctrinal backbone of early Buddhism. The Buddha teaches not salvation through divine grace, but freedom through ethical conduct, mental discipline, and insight. His path is practical, repeatable, and open to all who are willing to walk it.
The recurring effort in later centuries to incorporate the Buddha into the Hindu framework—as an avatar of Viṣṇu or a divine deceiver—arose long after the time of the Buddha and reflects theological revisionism rather than historical or doctrinal accuracy. These claims obscure the radical message of the Buddha: that liberation is possible for every person, without appeal to gods or rituals.
Moreover, Buddhist devotional practices, while resembling religious worship in form, are grounded in reverence, reflection, and inspiration—not supplication or theistic dependency. The Buddha remains a guide, not a god; a teacher, not a supernatural ruler.
In a world where interfaith dialogue is both valuable and necessary, maintaining the doctrinal clarity of each tradition is a sign of respect, not division. To understand the Buddha correctly—as the texts themselves present him—is to appreciate the depth and originality of the Buddhist path. It is a path forged by human insight, aimed at human freedom, and available to all who take refuge in wisdom, not in divinity.
As the Dhammapada reminds us:
"By oneself is evil done, by oneself is one defiled. By oneself is evil left undone, by oneself is one purified. Purity and impurity depend on oneself. No one can purify another." (Dhp 165)
The Buddha showed the way. It is for us to walk it.
Appendices:
Glossary of Key Pāli Terms
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Anattā – Non-self; the absence of an eternal, unchanging self or soul.
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Ātman – (Sanskrit) Self or soul, posited in the Upaniṣads as eternal; rejected in Buddhism.
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Bhikkhu/Bhikkhunī – Monk/Nun; ordained members of the Buddhist Sangha.
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Brahmā – A high deity in the Brahmanical pantheon; portrayed in Buddhism as a powerful but deluded being.
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Dhamma – The Buddha’s teaching; the universal law; also refers to phenomena or mental objects depending on context.
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Deva – Celestial being or god; in Buddhism, beings in higher realms subject to karma and rebirth.
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Kamma (Sanskrit: Karma) – Intentional action; the moral law of cause and effect.
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Māra – The embodiment of delusion and temptation; the metaphorical "evil one" who obstructs enlightenment.
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Nibbāna (Sanskrit: Nirvāṇa) – Liberation; the cessation of suffering and rebirth.
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Paṭicca Samuppāda – Dependent origination; the interdependent arising of all phenomena.
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Sangha – The community of Buddhist monks, nuns, and noble disciples.
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Sutta – A discourse or sermon by the Buddha; canonical text in the Pāli Canon.
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Tathāgata – An epithet for the Buddha, often interpreted as "one who has thus gone" or "one who has thus come."
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Upaniṣads – Hindu philosophical texts that discuss metaphysics and the nature of self (ātman).
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Vedas – The foundational texts of Brahmanism, emphasizing ritual and hymns to gods.
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Sutta Index and Reference Table
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Sutta Index and Reference Table
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Selected Translations from Bhikkhu Bodhi, Thanissaro Bhikkhu, and Bhikkhu Sujato
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Table of Doctrinal Contrasts (Buddhism vs Hinduism
